1 David mustered the men who were with him and appointed over them commanders of thousands and commanders of hundreds. 2 David sent the troops out-a third under the command of Joab, a third under Joab's brother Abishai son of Zeruiah, and a third under Ittai the Gittite. The king told the troops, "I myself will surely march out with you."
3 But the men said, "You must not go out; if we are forced to flee, they won't care about us. Even if half of us die, they won't care; but you are worth ten thousand of us. It would be better now for you to give us support from the city."
4 The king answered, "I will do whatever seems best to you." So the king stood beside the gate while all the men marched out in units of hundreds and of thousands. 5 The king commanded Joab, Abishai and Ittai, "Be gentle with the young man Absalom for my sake." And all the troops heard the king giving orders concerning Absalom to each of the commanders.
6 The army marched into the field to fight Israel, and the battle took place in the forest of Ephraim. 7 There the army of Israel was defeated by David's men, and the casualties that day were great-twenty thousand men. 8 The battle spread out over the whole countryside, and the forest claimed more lives that day than the sword.
9 Now Absalom happened to meet David's men. He was riding his mule, and as the mule went under the thick branches of a large oak, Absalom's head got caught in the tree. He was left hanging in midair, while the mule he was riding kept on going.
10 When one of the men saw this, he told Joab, "I just saw Absalom hanging in an oak tree."
11 Joab said to the man who had told him this, "What! You saw him? Why didn't you strike him to the ground right there? Then I would have had to give you ten shekels of silver and a warrior's belt."
12 But the man replied, "Even if a thousand shekels were weighed out into my hands, I would not lift my hand against the king's son. In our hearing the king commanded you and Abishai and Ittai, 'Protect the young man Absalom for my sake. ' 13 And if I had put my life in jeopardy -and nothing is hidden from the king-you would have kept your distance from me."
14 Joab said, "I'm not going to wait like this for you." So he took three javelins in his hand and plunged them into Absalom's heart while Absalom was still alive in the oak tree. 15 And ten of Joab's armor-bearers surrounded Absalom, struck him and killed him.
16 Then Joab sounded the trumpet, and the troops stopped pursuing Israel, for Joab halted them. 17 They took Absalom, threw him into a big pit in the forest and piled up a large heap of rocks over him. Meanwhile, all the Israelites fled to their homes.
18 During his lifetime Absalom had taken a pillar and erected it in the King's Valley as a monument to himself, for he thought, "I have no son to carry on the memory of my name." He named the pillar after himself, and it is called Absalom's Monument to this day.
When Necks Break
2 Samuel 18:5-9, 15, 31-33
Sermon
by Donna Schaper
What is the point of war? Even wars of old? The horrible story of Absalom's neck breaking as he rides his horse as part of an ancient army is very hard to take — and still many of us teach it in Sunday school! One picture that I remember from my own heavily Sunday-schooled youth is of Absalom, beautiful, long, black hair, riding along on a white horse, with a branch straight at his throat. Chapter 18 of the second book of Samuel tells quite a story of violence and death. We get nothing but a slight favoritistic demur from David: Please protect Absalom if you can. Please take care of my son — as he sends three units out to war. The three units also have great casualties — but Absalom is gone. "Oh, Absalom, Absalom, Absalom...." But David's cry might have been for every woman's son, every man's daughter sacrificed to war.
How are we to resolve human conflicts if we do not go to war? How are we to be people who understand the casualties of war, with David's agony in tow? Can we do something about conflict before our sons have their heads chopped off? I think we can.
Conflict is omnipresent, at family dinner tables, family reunions, the United Nations, and in most countries. No activist or virtuous person will be far from conflict for long. In our urge to make a difference in the world, we will run smack dab into human pessimism, cynicism, and grief over failed attempts at goodness. The majority of people will not want a good person to succeed at anything. They won't know why; they will simply know how important it is for them to sneer at decent objectives.
Conflict is normal, inevitable, ordinary, and expected. The cultural messages are omnipresent: You can choose your pleasure or the world's service, your time or time dedicated to others. "You have to take care of number one." "Life is relationships and taking care of others." There are different versions of these two diametrically opposed cultural instructions (presumably) and many people just fall off the high wire, drop to the ground, and sit there in a muddle. Those who want to walk the wire and not fall will have to realize early and often that conflict will be present in every single setting. For breakfast should they go to the park and sit alone with a high-priced coffee? Or should they sit with the child or husband who has become dull or demanding? Or should they attend a breakfast meeting, the real bane of existence for most activists and high-flying professionals? Why would anyone attend a breakfast meeting, knowing that the quiet moment in the park is the alternative? Conflicts like how to have breakfast are normal. They will join conflicts about gym or more email, a walk after dinner or returning a few phone calls, lunch at the river or reading a professional article at our desk, styrofoam take-out not far away. We live our lives in ordinary conflict — ordinary conflicts, unresolved, lead to the horror of war.
Those who want to avoid the fate of Absalom will befriend conflict. We will make it our own. We will become experts at it. We will enjoy it. We will predict it, anticipate it, tame it, laugh at it, and revel in it. Of course, we will say, there are always two plus choices for every moment. I am a choice maker. I make choices. I am aware of the scripted life of the double bind and I unbind myself from it. I choose X sometimes and Y other times and I suffer the loss of the one I don't choose. I am not afraid to suffer. I sometimes choose X and Y at the same time. But I only choose a small pile of X twigs and a small pile of Y twigs. I go slowly. I am rarely the captive of what I don't have and more the captive of what I do have.
I sometimes call this conflict-loving, choice-making capacity that of the tough dove. There is nothing soft about making choices all the time. There is actually something very hard about it. We turn down people who want us. We say real "Nos." We get negative feedback. The people to whom we say no will not like it. The people to whom we say yes will rarely reward us, either. Tough doves live beyond both praise and criticism in an inner world they have created for themselves. They are highly strategic, highly directed, and highly focused at any given moment. Tough doves make tough choices. Do the tough choices that tough doves make avoid war over time? Are they any help to American Absalom or Iraqi or Korean Absaloms? I think yes. They are of help in that they practice the peacemaking muscles. Once we have confidence in our capacity with small conflicts, we are able to consider more. We are able to imagine a world of peace.
Simultaneously, tough doves get buried under and snowed over. Tough doves often fail. They also lose their way in the snow and fog of human interaction. They can feel like they are constantly digging out from a snowstorm. The desk that looked clear on Monday can be buried by Wednesday. I often feel that my life is a constant climbing out of a desk stress hole. The people to whom I should write, the people whom I should thank, join the people at whom I should yell, and the ever-present letters I should, as a Democratic citizen, be sending to my representatives — all combine to turn me into something as small and inconsequential as a dove. We go from tough to dove and back in minutes. We fail at making peace as well as succeed at making peace.
This personal embrace of the inevitability of (actually non-paradoxical) conflict leads to social behaviors that are different from the norm. We are not allergic to conflicts in meetings or families or social interactions. We know that conflict arrives to make something happen. We know that when conflict comes something is about to be birthed. Tensions are being resolved, opposites are attracting, and energy is being created. The points on the battery are inserted in life correctly and we have energy. There is no energy when positive and negative are placed incorrectly in the flashlight. Get the nodes right and stuff happens. We may have to train our stomachs and our vocabularies to be the tough dove that we are in meetings and fights. Training is good. It begins, for me, in humming an old hymn, "Drop thy still dews of quietness, 'til all our conflicts cease...." I call it my Bob Newhart tactic. Newhart is one of my favorite comics and the reason is his timing. It is absolutely brilliant, also a beat behind the trouble. Newhart waits. He listens. He uses his eyes and face to help others see what is happening so he doesn't have to tell them.
When it comes to conflict, we can have tragic results or comic results. By my hymn (spiritual training) and my waiting, I am able to at least hope for comic endings to conflicts. Tough doves work for the comedy, the happy ending. Tough people work to win; winning ends in tragedy. Peacemakers keep our sons from having their heads chopped off by trees.
Once we understand that conflict is inevitable, and it is, we find ourselves in need of concrete strategies to resolve it. How we use our tongues, how we use our mouths, and how we use our speech is the best strategic first step. It is not an accident that parents intervene in children's squabbles to say, "Use your words, not your fists." Neither is it an accident that parents find themselves saying, "Watch your mouth."
Using our words well can contribute to peace in the kitchen and peace in the world. Living well involves finding our tongue's way to praise. We appreciate in a world of severe appreciation deficit. Simply: find something to appreciate even in a situation or person you adamantly dislike. Let what you say take the form of praise and appreciation. We truly can shape our tongues so that they speak the truth in love. Small actions like this result in large matters like peace. Small actions keep our sons and daughters alive. It was too late for David to save his son once the war had started. The point is to stop the wars in the first place. The picture I would really like to see in Sunday schools is a picture of Absalom riding free out of the war on his horse, having accumulated a large amount of small actions, which can be taught to all children about how to make peace. Amen.
CSS Publishing Company, Sermons for Sundays after Pentecost (Middle Third): Being Two People at Once, by Donna Schaper
Just as the opening chapters of 2Samuel describe how David strengthened and unified Israel, now, after the Bathsheba incident, everything goes in reverse as the strong, unified kingdom unravels (13:1–20:26). David has troubles both from within his own household and from the outside. Amnon, David’s oldest son, rapes his half sister, Tamar. …
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
1 David mustered the men who were with him and appointed over them commanders of thousands and commanders of hundreds. 2 David sent the troops out-a third under the command of Joab, a third under Joab's brother Abishai son of Zeruiah, and a third under Ittai the Gittite. The king told the troops, "I myself will surely march out with you."
3 But the men said, "You must not go out; if we are forced to flee, they won't care about us. Even if half of us die, they won't care; but you are worth ten thousand of us. It would be better now for you to give us support from the city."
4 The king answered, "I will do whatever seems best to you." So the king stood beside the gate while all the men marched out in units of hundreds and of thousands. 5 The king commanded Joab, Abishai and Ittai, "Be gentle with the young man Absalom for my sake." And all the troops heard the king giving orders concerning Absalom to each of the commanders.
6 The army marched into the field to fight Israel, and the battle took place in the forest of Ephraim. 7 There the army of Israel was defeated by David's men, and the casualties that day were great-twenty thousand men. 8 The battle spread out over the whole countryside, and the forest claimed more lives that day than the sword.
9 Now Absalom happened to meet David's men. He was riding his mule, and as the mule went under the thick branches of a large oak, Absalom's head got caught in the tree. He was left hanging in midair, while the mule he was riding kept on going.
10 When one of the men saw this, he told Joab, "I just saw Absalom hanging in an oak tree."
11 Joab said to the man who had told him this, "What! You saw him? Why didn't you strike him to the ground right there? Then I would have had to give you ten shekels of silver and a warrior's belt."
12 But the man replied, "Even if a thousand shekels were weighed out into my hands, I would not lift my hand against the king's son. In our hearing the king commanded you and Abishai and Ittai, 'Protect the young man Absalom for my sake. ' 13 And if I had put my life in jeopardy -and nothing is hidden from the king-you would have kept your distance from me."
14 Joab said, "I'm not going to wait like this for you." So he took three javelins in his hand and plunged them into Absalom's heart while Absalom was still alive in the oak tree. 15 And ten of Joab's armor-bearers surrounded Absalom, struck him and killed him.
16 Then Joab sounded the trumpet, and the troops stopped pursuing Israel, for Joab halted them. 17 They took Absalom, threw him into a big pit in the forest and piled up a large heap of rocks over him. Meanwhile, all the Israelites fled to their homes.
18 During his lifetime Absalom had taken a pillar and erected it in the King's Valley as a monument to himself, for he thought, "I have no son to carry on the memory of my name." He named the pillar after himself, and it is called Absalom's Monument to this day.
As the battle draws near, David’s men are commanded as usual by his nephews Joab and Abishai (10:9–10), but this time a mercenary contingent is led by Ittai from Gath (18:1–8). David volunteers to go with them but is dissuaded in view of the fact that the enemy wants above all to see him dead. As the troops march out to battle, David urges them to be gentle with Absalom. Since David and his men are outnumbered they choose the rugged terrain of “the forest of Ephraim” as the battle site (18:6). Aided by this unusual setting, David’s men outmaneuver the army of Israel and kill twenty thousand (or twenty “companies” of) men. Experienced and intensely loyal to David, his men win a decisive victory and save the throne for him.
During the course of the battle Absalom somehow becomes separated from his men, and his head—or possibly his thick hair—is caught in a low-hanging oak tree (18:9–18). Unable to extricate himself, Absalom is soon at the mercy of Joab, who plunges three javelins into his heart. In spite of David’s specific order not to harm Absalom, Joab likely realizes that without Absalom the revolt will collapse. Although Joab had been instrumental in bringing Absalom back from exile (2Sam. 14:1–20), upon his revolt Joab clearly felt no pity for the handsome prince. Absalom’s body is thrown into a large pit, and a pile of rocks is heaped over him. The irony of this ignoble burial is not lost on the historian; he points out that Absalom previously erected “a monument to himself” near Jerusalem (18:18).
Whenever an important battle was in progress, the people who sent out the troops anxiously awaited news of the outcome. Naturally everyone hoped for good news, and the messenger was called “the one who takes the good news.” Sometimes, however, the news was anything but good, such as the time Eli was told about Israel’s crushing defeat (1Sam. 4:12–17). As Joab prepares to dispatch a messenger, he realizes that from David’s perspective the news about Absalom’s death is bad (18:19–29). For this reason, Joab hesitates to send Ahimaaz son of Zadok, who has served as a messenger before (cf. 2Sam. 17:17, 21). If David sees him coming, he will anticipate good news, and Joab does not want the king to get his hopes up. So Joab sends a foreigner, a Cush*te, to take the news, although a little later he allows Ahimaaz to run behind him. By taking a different route, Ahimaaz outruns the Cush*te and reaches David first. He tells the king about the victory but is unaware of Absalom’s fate. Judging from his questions, David seems to be more interested in Absalom’s condition than the outcome of the battle.
When the Cush*te arrives, he gives David the information he wants in an indirect but clear way. David is crushed and begins to mourn his son’s death (18:30–19:4). The pain is so great that David wishes he had died instead of Absalom. Over the years the tension between father and son has been great, but clearly David has no desire for such a violent outcome. Though the troops return in triumph, their shouting and celebrating are quickly stilled in response to David’s mourning. Instead of congratulating his men, David continues to grieve uncontrollably over the death of Absalom. Although David’s response is understandable in his capacity as a father, it ignores his responsibilities as the king and military leader. For this reason Joab confronts David and rouses him from his despondency (19:5–8). In a short and sarcastic speech, Joab accuses David of ignoring the fact that his soldiers have just risked their lives to win a crucial victory and that they deserve the king’s profound thanks. By behaving as if he has lost the battle, David stands the chance of losing the support of the very men who have been so loyal to him. David responds to Joab’s plea, and his presence in the city gate consoles the men.
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Big Idea: The Lord’s discipline, once decreed, is inescapable and just; it often brings great sorrow in its wake.
Understanding the Text
As the previous episode came to an end, David was in serious danger. But the preceding episode made it clear that David was not alone and that the Lord, while using Absalom as an instrument in his discipline of David, is going to bring about Absalom’s defeat (17:14). This episode tells how that happens. The Lord halts Absalom’s coup in its tracks, but in the process David pays the third installment of his self-imposed fourfold penalty (cf. 12:6). Nathan’s prophecy continues to echo through the story as the sword continues to rip through David’s house (cf. 12:10).
David’s response to the loss of his son is heart wrenching yet also symptomatic of his failed leadership. Joab’s rebuke and warning raise the issue of David’s continuing support. Despite the failure of Absalom’s coup, will Israel continue to support David? The stage is set for the conclusion of David’s story, which will focus on his attempt to maintain his throne.
Historical and Cultural Background
Following Absalom’s death, David weeps bitterly and appears to be ungrateful for the sacrifice his soldiers have made (19:1–4). Joab confronts him and accuses him of misplaced priorities: “You love those who hate you and hate those who love you” (v.6). This is not empty rhetoric or hyperbole. Joab uses the terms “love” and “hate” in their covenantal sense of loyalty/disloyalty. David’s response suggests that he is more loyal to the disloyal Absalom than he is to his faithful soldiers. A good illustration of the use of love/hate terminology in this sense can be seen in Amarna letter 286, where Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem asks the pharaoh’s commissioner, “Why do you love the Apiru but hate the mayors?” (COS, 3:237).
Interpretive Insights
18:2 David sent out his troops. For the first time since 13:27, the narrator describes David as sending (shalah). In chapter 11 the narrator portrays David as possessing absolute sovereignty: he sent people where he willed (vv. 1, 3–4, 12, 27) and by a mere message accomplished his desires (vv. 6, 14). But he used his power to satisfy his lust and cover up his crime. In chapter 13 he continued to exercise his authority over others, but now it backfired on him as the Lord providentially brought to pass the fulfillment of his self-imposed penalty. He first sent Tamar to her brother Amnon’s house, where she was raped; then he sent Amnon to his brother Absalom’s sheepshearing, where he was murdered (see the comments above on 13:7, 27). Now he sends out his army to confront Absalom, giving them clear instructions not to harm the young man (v.5). But once again David has, with his royal command, set in motion events that will bring him sorrow and culminate in the fulfillment of Nathan’s prophecy (12:11–12). David has abused his royal authority; now the Lord is using that very royal authority as an instrument in his discipline of David.
18:5 Be gentle with the young man Absalom for my sake. David’s reference to Absalom as a “young man” (see also vv. 29, 32) suggests that he is willing to overlook his son’s actions as youthful indiscretion. Once again we get a hint of David’s inability to hold those closest to him accountable for their behavior, including his sons (see the comment above on 13:21; cf. 1Kings 1:6). Absalom’s youth is no excuse for his behavior. Indeed, the narrator uses the same term (na‘ar) of Eli’s sons: “This sin of the young men was very great in the Lord’s sight” (1Sam. 2:17).
18:6 to fight Israel. Israel is cast in the role of the enemy, emphasizing the widespread support Absalom has gathered (see 15:6, 13; 16:15; 17:14, 24, 26) and David’s vulnerability.
18:7 the casualties that day were great. The Hebrew text reads, “and there was a great defeat in that day.” There may be a sad echo of Israel’s defeat in the days of Eli. In 1Samuel 4:17 the messenger announced to Eli that Israel had suffered “heavy losses” (Hebrew, “a great defeat”). These are the only two texts where this expression (maggepah gedolah) occurs in the Former Prophets.1
18:9 the mule he was riding kept on going. According to tradition (Josephus; the Talmud), his hair becomes entangled in the branches, but the text stops short of saying this specifically.2 Since Absalom’s mule is his royal mount (see 2Sam. 13:29), the incident has symbolic significance: just as Absalom has lost his mule, so he is about to lose his kingship.3
18:14 plunged them into Absalom’s heart. David’s past failures have come back to haunt him. When Joab murdered Abner, David rebuked Joab but did not punish him for his crime (3:22–39). Now the unpunished murderer Joab has taken the life of another unpunished murderer, one who is near and dear to David’s heart. David learns the hard way that it is dangerous to let hardened, unrepentant murderers go unpunished. It was also Joab who with calculating and cold-blooded efficiency carried out David’s orders to have Uriah killed. He did so because he was committed to doing what was in the political interests of his king (11:14–25). Now this same Joab disregards David’s orders and kills David’s son with calculating and cold-blooded efficiency because, once again, he is committed to doing what is politically advantageous for David. David has let emotion and sentiment cloud his vision, but Joab knows that David can be safe only if and when Absalom is dead.4
18:15 struck him and killed him. It is perhaps appropriate that the account of Absalom’s death contains echoes of both Uriah’s death and Amnon’s murder. David instructed Joab to withdraw from Uriah during the assault on the city so he would be “struck down and die” (11:15). The verbs (nakah and mut) are the same ones used by the narrator here in verse 15 to describe how Joab’s men finish off Absalom. As he planned Amnon’s murder, Absalom commanded his men to “strike Amnon down” and “kill him” (13:28). Again the verbs are the same ones used to describe how Absalom, who ordered his men to kill his brother, meets his own demise at the hand of Joab’s men. The intertextual links convey the notion of poetic justice, for both David and Absalom.
18:16 Then Joab sounded the trumpet. This is the second time that Joab is described as blowing a trumpet to signal the end of a military victory (cf. 2:28). Ironically, both times he led David’s forces against the armies of “Israel” (cf. 2:17, 28, with 18:7, 16). The first time he defeated the pro-Saul Benjamite forces led by Abner, but on this second occasion the opposition has been led by David’s very own son. What was strictly intertribal conflict has now become intrafamily strife that threatens to shred the national unity David has achieved.
18:17 a large heap of rocks. Undoubtedly Joab considers this form of burial fitting because Absalom is an accursed enemy (see Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 10:27) whose burial place will be a reminder of the destiny of all rebels.5 There is an echo here of two incidents recorded in Joshua 7–8. After Achan was executed, Israel “heaped up a large pile of rocks” over him (Josh. 7:26). According to Joshua 8:29, after the king of Ai was hanged (talah) on a tree (cf. 2Sam. 18:9), the soldiers threw his corpse (Hiphil of shalak) down (cf. 2Sam. 18:17) and “raised a large pile of rocks” over it. These are the only three passages in the Old Testament that mention “a pile of rocks” (gal-’abanim), and in each case the adjective “large” (gadol) is added for good measure. The intertextual linking casts Absalom in the role of a rebellious Israelite (Achan) who disgraced and jeopardized the covenant community and a foreign enemy (the king of Ai) who died a humiliating death.6
18:18 He named the pillar after himself. The juxtaposition of this notation (v.18) with the description of Absalom’s burial place (v.17) is significant in at least a couple of ways. Absalom does indeed die without a son to carry on his name, a fitting end for a rebel.7His dishonorable burial also cancels out his earlier attempt to glorify himself beyond the grave.
18:19 that the Lord has vindicated him by delivering him from the hand of his enemies. The reports of the army’s victory delivered by Ahimaaz and the Cush*te messenger serve as a foil for David’s sorrowful response to the news of Absalom’s death.8The messengers’ words provide one perspective: the Lord has delivered David from his enemies (v.19), who have lifted their hand against him (v.28) and risen up against him (vv. 31–32). From this perspective, Absalom was his father’s mortal enemy. David’s response reflects another perspective: by grieving the loss of his son (v.33), David is, perhaps subconsciously, focusing on the event as divine discipline. After all, Absalom becomes the third installment of David’s self-imposed fourfold penalty for his crime against Uriah (cf. 12:6). In the different responses we are reminded of the two dimensions of the event: divine deliverance and divine discipline.
18:33 He went up to the room over the gateway and wept. The description of David’s response to the news of Absalom’s death echoes an earlier scene, when David went up the Mount of Olives, “weeping as he went” (15:30). On that first occasion he mourned because Absalom was threatening his throne and his life. Now ironically he is mourning the death of this one who has threatened him. But perhaps the two events are linked, for David must be sensing in both the disciplinary hand of God (cf. 15:26; 16:11). Yet Fokkelman comments on the tragic reality: “David should have realized that he could not retain both, the throne and his son. Retention of one really presupposes the loss of the other.”9
If only I had died instead of you. Earlier David expressed his hope that the Lord would repay him good instead of (tahat) the ruin that Shimei predicted for him (16:12; cf. 16:8). But now that the Lord has delivered David from ruin and death, he wishes that he had died “instead of” (tahat) Absalom.10 David is focusing on divine discipline, not divine deliverance.
19:4 cried aloud. Tamar’s vindication continues here (see the comments on 13:31). Following her rape, she wept aloud (za‘aq, 13:19); now David cries out (za‘aq, 19:4 [5 MT]) over the death of his son.
O my son Absalom! O Absalom, my son, my son! The repetition of David’s cry of anguish (cf. 18:33) draws attention to the depth of David’s grief. This mirrors the earlier repetition of his command not to harm Absalom (18:5, 12) and of his question regarding Absalom’s well-being (18:29, 32).11
19:8 the Israelites had fled to their homes. This is tragically ironic, for on an earlier occasion Israel fled to their homes following a defeat by a foreign army, the Philistines (1Sam. 4:10). But now they do so after an unsuccessful coup against their rightful king. Once more there is an echo of that earlier defeat, when Eli’s sons were killed (see comments on 18:6–7).
Theological Insights
The outworking of divine justice is the main theological theme that emerges in this episode. Through the device of literary allusion, the narrator depicts Absalom as getting what he deserves (see the comments on 18:15, 17 above). But the focal point is David, whose sorrow amid victory and deliverance betrays his awareness that divine discipline has engulfed him yet again. Once more the narrator utilizes literary allusion to show that David’s earlier crimes and failures are coming back to haunt him. Reverberations of the murder of Uriah are heard in the description of Absalom’s death at the hand of Joab (cf. 18:15), and an echo of Tamar’s pain can be heard in David’s mournful scream (cf. 19:4). The account is a sober reminder to all who read it that God is just and holds sinners accountable for their actions.
Teaching the Text
1. The Lord’s discipline, once decreed, is inescapable. The prophet Nathan announced David’s punishment: the sword would not depart from David’s house, and the Lord would bring calamity on David from within his own household (12:10–12). David himself even imposed his own penalty: fourfold payment for the “lamb” he stole (12:6). He paid the first two installments when the infant died and when Absalom murdered Amnon. In this episode we read of the third installment as Joab, who played an important role in David’s murder of Uriah, ruthlessly kills Absalom. David has commanded his three generals to spare Absalom’s life, but in the providence of God Joab, not Abishai or Ittai, receives the report of Absalom’s whereabouts and, in his typical fashion, does what he deems to be in David’s best interests.
2. The Lord’s discipline, even when tempered by his salvation, can be painful. From the perspective of David’s army, the Lord has saved the king from the mortal threat mounted by his enemies (see 18:19, 28, 31). Indeed, David’s family has been spared (19:5). But amid this great victory, David recognizes the disciplinary hand of God and feels the pain of losing his son. His body shakes physically when he receives the news of Absalom’s death, and he expresses his wish that he could have died instead of his son (18:33). Five times he shouts out Absalom’s name, and eight times he cries out “my son” (18:33; 19:4). David has been forgiven, and the Lord has protected him in answer to his prayer, but he still needs to face the inevitable and painful consequences of his past deeds.
Illustrating the Text
Divine discipline is inescapable.
Film: Duel, directed by Steven Spielberg. Based on a short story by Richard Matheson (b.1926), this film (1971) is Spielberg’s (b.1946) feature film debut. In it a terrified motorist, played by Dennis Weaver, is driving his Valiant auto on a remote and lonely road in the mountains when he realizes he is being chased and stalked by the unseen driver of a tanker truck, a 1955 Peterbilt 281. Although the film deserves watching for its powerful treatment of human fear in the face of the unknown, it also serves as a metaphor for the relentlessness of persistent pursuit, a metaphor also for God’s action in our lives.
Poetry: “The Hound of Heaven,” by Francis Thompson. A brilliant but tortured poet who struggled a lifetime with addiction to opium, even living as a street person, Thompson (1859–1907) writes about the pursuing God as “the hound of heaven.” Well-known lines from that poem (1893) are as follows:
I fled Him, down the nights and down the days;
I fled Him, down the arches of the years;
I fled Him, down the labyrinthine ways
Of my own mind; and in the mist of tears
I hid from Him, and under running laughter.
Up vistaed hopes I sped;
And shot, precipitated,
Adown Titanic glooms of chasmèd fears,
From those strong Feet that followed, followed after.
But with unhurrying chase,
And unperturbèd pace,
Deliberate speed, majestic instancy,
They beat—and a Voice beat
More instant than the Feet—
“All things betray thee, who betrayest Me.”
Divine discipline is inevitably painful.
See the “Illustrating the Text” section of 2Samuel 16:1–14.
Teaching the Text by Robert B. Chisholm Jr., Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
Son of Zeruiah, David’s sister, and brother of Joab, David’s general (1Sam. 26:6; 1Chron. 2:16), he was an accomplished soldier in David’s army.
The third of David’s sons, born in Hebron while David was king of Judah alone. He plays a prominent role in the violence that overtook David following his murder of Uriah (2Sam. 11). Absalom’s sister Tamar was raped by his older half brother Amnon (13:119), and two years later he ordered his men to murder Amnon (13:23–33) before fleeing to Geshur. Joab convinced David to restore him (14:1–21). David snubbed him on his return, and he later rebelled against David, coming close to toppling him before being killed by Joab in the forest of Ephraim after his hair became caught in a tree (18:9–15).
The army of Israel was primarily a volunteer military force directed by God and his word. Deuteronomy 20 establishes the guidelines for warfare, Num. 1 describes organization, and Num. 2:17 highlights God’s strategic position as commander in the sacred event of war. Israelite warriors were men twenty years and older from the nation’s tribes, clans, and families. The Levites were appointed tabernacle caretakers and not counted in the census for military duties. The priest was responsible for addressing the nation prior to a battle and then leading the battle procession in connection with the ark of the covenant.
The Israelite army structure is not overly developed in the biblical material. Under God as commander in chief was the king, who then worked in connection with his commanders and officers to execute God’s will by means of a tribal confederation. Prior to the monarchy, God worked through Moses and Joshua to rally the men for battle. Samuel warned the nation that the king would abuse the volunteerism of the army and take their sons and make them render military service with his chariots and horses (1Sam. 8:1112). This warning was realized under the leadership of Solomon and Rehoboam. Army divisions included a list of family heads, commanders of thousands, commanders of hundreds, and their officers. In addition, a period of their service was noted (1Chron. 27).
Army size was not a matter of importance for success in battle. God as divine warrior led the nation in battle and determined the outcome in keeping with his sovereign purposes. Only a few Israelites were necessary to defeat thousands (Lev. 26:8; Deut. 32:8). The defeat of Pharaoh and his army in the exodus and the conquest provides the most dramatic premonarchy illustrations of God’s defiance of the numbers. During the monarchy, God orchestrated the defeat of the vast Aramean army with a smaller Israelite army (1Kings 20:27). On the other hand, when the Israelites were disobedient to the covenant, they would be put to flight (Josh. 7).
The second king of Israel (r. 1010970 BC), founder of a dynasty that continued with his son Solomon (r. 970–931 BC), who ruled all of Israel; subsequently the remaining “sons of David” ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, until 586 BC.
Human kingship is a late development in Israel, but a number of ancient texts anticipate the establishment of the institution (Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20) and specifically the rise of a king from Judah (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:17). Thus, it is surprising that the first king of Israel is not from Judah, but from Benjamin. When the people ask Samuel for a king, he anoints Saul (1Sam. 8–12), who proves to be a tremendous disappointment. He forfeits the establishment of his dynasty when he shows a lack of confidence in God by rashly offering prebattle sacrifices (13:13–14). God then rejects Saul as king because he does not execute God’s full judgment against the Amalekites as he knows he should (15:23).
Eventually Saul’s moment of judgment comes. Saul’s final battle is against the Philistines, the major foreign force still inside the borders of the promised land. Both Saul and Jonathan meet their end on Mount Gilboa, and David sings songs that express his sadness over their deaths (1Sam. 31–2Sam. 1).
Even with Saul out of the way, David’s rise to kingship is not easy. He is immediately crowned king of Judah (2Sam. 2:1–7), but the northern tribes choose to follow Ish-Bosheth, the son of Saul. War erupts between the two kingdoms. Eventually, though, the powerful general Abner abandons his support of Saul’s son, sealing the end of that dynasty. Ish-Bosheth is killed by his own men, and soon David becomes king over all Israel (5:1–5).
David’s kingship leads to significant victories that, in essence, complete the conquest of Canaan by finally subduing all the internal enemies. His men take the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and he makes it his capital (2Sam. 5:6–16). He also defeats the Philistines, who have been a thorn in the side of Israel for years (2Sam. 5:17–25; for other victories, see 8:1–14). In celebration, David brings the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2Sam. 6).
The David narrative reaches its apex when God enters into a covenant with him that establishes his dynasty (2Sam. 7; 1Chron. 17). After David dies, his son will succeed him, and indeed his dynasty lasts for many hundreds of years (see below).
David is a good king, but not a perfect king. A turning point in his reign comes in 2Sam. 11. Up to this point, David has been content with what God has given him. He does not grasp for anything that does not belong to him. However, when he sees the beautiful Bathsheba bathing, he sends messengers to bring her to his house, where the two have sexual intercourse and she becomes pregnant. In an attempt to conceal this sin of adultery, he orders the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. Thus, he adds the crime of murder to that of adultery.
David thinks that the sin is secret, but nothing is hidden from God, who sends his prophet Nathan to confront David (2Sam. 12; cf. Ps. 51). The difference between Saul and David is not that the latter is perfect but rather that David, as opposed to Saul, repents when he sins. Thus, God allows his reign to continue. Even so, David feels the consequences of his sin. First, the son that Bathsheba bears from her illicit union with David is struck with illness and dies. And ever afterward, David’s family life is troubled, with great impact on the political life of Israel. Son is pitted against son (Amnon and Absalom [2Sam. 13]), as well as son against father (Absalom and David [2Sam. 15–18]). Absalom temporarily deposes his father from the throne, but David eventually regains the kingship, though at the cost of the heartbreaking loss of his son.
Even at the very end, there is conflict within David’s house. When David has grown old, another son, Adonijah, attempts to take the throne, with support from powerful people such as Joab and Abiathar. At the instigation of Bathsheba and Nathan, however, David places the son of his choosing, Solomon, on the throne (1Kings 1). David then dies after a reign of forty-one years, seven in Hebron and the rest over all Israel (1Kings 2:10–12).
David’s greatest legacy is the dynasty that bears his name. Beginning with Solomon, however, his successors do not continue his spiritual legacy. Although a number of kings do some good, only Hezekiah (r. 727–698 BC) and Josiah (r. 639–609 BC) are given unqualified approval. Eventually, the Davidic rule comes to an end in Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians (586 BC). But God is not done with his redemptive purposes, and his promise to David is that he will have a ruler on the throne “forever” (2Sam. 7:16). The NT recognizes that Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of this promise. He is the greater son of David, the one who is the Christ or Messiah, the anointed king. Jesus is the one who reigns forever in heaven. The life and the rule of David foreshadow the messianic rule of Jesus Christ.
Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).
Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).
For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).
Joseph’s second son, who received a greater blessing than did his older brother, Manasseh, when they were adopted by Jacob (Gen. 41:52; 46:20; 48:5, 20). Ephraim’s descendants formed one of the tribes of Israel. See also Ephraim, Tribe of.
Fasting, often linked with prayer, was one avenue of appeal to God in the face of crises, both national and personal. Moses ascended to Mount Sinai and was with God forty days and nights without eating bread or drinking water, both before and after the Israelites’ sin with the golden calf (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 9:818). David fasted when his son was dying (2Sam. 12:15–23). Esther called all the Jews of Susa to fast for three days before she ventured before the king (Esther 4:15–17). Joel called the people to repentance and fasting as the land was devastated by a locust plague (Joel 1:13–14; 2:12). Forty days of fasting, an echo of Moses’ experience, prepared Jesus to face the devil’s temptations (Matt. 4:1–11 pars.).
The OT prophets criticized Israelites who presumed that their religious obligations were met simply by fasting (Isa. 58:1–10; Zech. 7:1–5). When asked why his disciples did not fast and pray, Jesus indicated that sometimes fasting is inappropriate (Matt. 9:14–17 pars.). Luke recorded an addition to Jesus’ statement about new wine in old wineskins: “No one after drinking old wine wants the new, for they say, ‘The old is better’” (Luke 5:39), perhaps suggesting that the accumulation of fasting practices was “new wine” and they ought simply to observe the Day of Atonement.
A controlled point of entry into an otherwise enclosed area such as a city (Gen. 34:24; Ps. 122:2; Acts 9:24), camp (Exod. 32:2627), tabernacle court (Exod. 35:17), palace (2Kings 11:19), temple area (Jer. 36:10; Ezek. 40), prison (Acts 12:10), or house (Acts 10:17).
In the OT, the city gate has a central role in that city’s military, economic, judicial, political, and religious aspects of life. A key component of the defense system of a city, the gate consists of doors fortified with bars (Judg. 16:3; Ps. 107:16; Nah. 3:13) and keeps invading armies out while also serving as the point of departure and return for the city’s army (2Sam. 18:4; cf. God the warrior entering in Ps. 24:7–8). The gate also may serve as the location where news of the battle is delivered (1Sam. 4:18; 2Sam. 18:24). The destruction of the city gate usually means the destruction of the city (Isa. 24:12).
In the economic life of the city, the gate functions as a place of commerce (Gen. 23; 2Kings 7:1) and music (Lam. 5:14). At the entrance to the city gate, the city elders assembled daily to hear cases and render judgment (Job 29:7; Prov. 24:7). Along with the elders, there might be additional witnesses (Ruth 4:1–11; Ps. 69:12). For criminal cases, the gate may also be the location where punishment is enacted (Deut. 17:5; 22:24). Thus, the gate is to be a place where all people can come to obtain justice (2Sam. 15:2–4; Isa. 29:21; Amos 5:15). The gate may hold a seat reserved for the king (2Sam. 19:8) as well as the king’s officials (Esther 2:19–21; 3:2–3). The city gate might also contain shrines to various gods (2Kings 23:8; cf. Acts 14:13).
Some references to gates refer to those of the temple area (Ezek. 44; 46; Pss. 100:4; 118:19–20). In Ezek. 48 the temple area is to have twelve gates, each named after a tribe of Israel (Ezek. 48:30–35; cf. Rev. 21:12–25). The prophet Jeremiah proclaims the word of the Lord from both the city gate(s) (Jer. 17:19–27) and the temple gate(s) (7:1–4).
In the NT, Jesus raises the dead son of a widow at the town gate (Luke 7:11–17) and heals a lame man near the Sheep Gate (John 5:1–15). Peter heals a crippled man near the temple gate (Acts 3:1–10). Jesus mentions gates in his teaching, including a call to enter through the narrow gate of life (Matt. 7:13–14), and his parable of the sheep and the gate, in which Jesus refers to himself as the gate (John 10:1–18). See also City Gates.
Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and in the Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors.
Metaphorically, the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or even the whole person. It also refers to the center of something or its inner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importance and location.
Mind. The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these cases does not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while the neurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, it has no bearing on this use of language. Deuteronomy 6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occurs in three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common to all three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospel writers want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,” but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrew word for “heart” includes the mind.
The mental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heart is where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18; Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings 3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makes plans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron. 29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts 8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, and skill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is the place of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role of conscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:2021).
It is often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for “heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp the mental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to love God with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6). Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes our perspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” is clearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents to talk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. In order for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds need to be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him. Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation on and determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is not merely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview in which the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truth requires careful, reflective thought.
Emotions and attitude. The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number of feelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26), hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10), dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15), sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition (James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudes such as willingness, courage, and desire.
The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.
Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).
Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).
The designation “Israelites” signifies the nation of Israel, which can be traced back to the children of Jacob (Gen. 46:8; cf. Exod. 1:9; Num. 1:45). To distinguish themselves from foreigners, Israelites called themselves ’ibrim, “Hebrews” (Gen. 43:32; Exod. 10:3). During the period of the divided kingdom, the name “Israelites” was used to refer to the Ephraimites (2Kings 17:6; 18:11); during the Second Temple period, it took on a religious orientation (Sir. 46:10; 47:2; Jdt. 4:11; 2Macc. 1:2526). In the NT, true Israelites are not necessarily those descended from Israel or Abraham but rather those who trust in Jesus Christ, who is the fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham (Rom. 9:4–8; Gal. 4:21–31; cf. Rev. 21:12).
A Gittite soldier and commander of six hundred men who joined with King David and his men as they were fleeing Jerusalem, which had been overtaken by Absalom. Despite his recent arrival and against David’s noble objections, Ittai remained faithful to David, earning him David’s confidence (2Sam. 15:1922). As David prepared for the battle that would claim Absalom’s life, he named Ittai as commander of a third of his forces, making him equal to Joab and Abishai (2Sam. 23:29 [NIV: “Ithai”]). He is not subsequently mentioned.
A nephew of King David through his sister Zeruiah (1Chron. 2:1617). His brothers were Abishai and Asahel, and his cousin was Amasa, all of whom were important military commanders. Joab himself was the most famous military leader of them all. He became the leader of David’s army after he was the first to take up David’s challenge to defeat the Jebusite city of Jerusalem (1Chron. 11:4–9).
Joab won many impressive battles for David (2Sam. 2:12–32; 10:1–19). He often served the interests of David, even trying to persuade David not to take a census that he knew would provoke God’s anger (2Sam. 24:1–9; 1Chron. 21:1–6). On some occasions he gave David bad advice—for instance, counseling him to take Absalom back into the court (2Sam. 14:1–33). However, he sometimes acted in his own interests, and not those of his king, country, or God. He killed Abner, the commander of the northern army, in revenge (2Sam. 3:22–39) and even murdered his own cousin Amasa (2Sam. 20:7–13).
Joab met his end when he supported Adonijah’s attempt to succeed David. When David’s choice, Solomon, became king, he sent Benaiah to kill Adonijah. When news of Adonijah’s death reached Joab, he fled to the tabernacle and took hold of the horns of the altar (1Kings 1:50). Solomon ordered Benaiah to kill Joab, and he did so in the tabernacle because Joab refused to come out (1Kings 2:29–31, 34).
A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.
A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).
God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).
In ancient Israel and surrounding cultures, pillars were used in every kind of architectural construction, from simple houses (Prov. 9:1) to palaces (Ps. 144:12) and temples (Judg. 16:29; 1Kings 7:1522). One of the distinctive features of Israelite domestic architecture was the division of the ground floor of the house into two, three, or four rooms divided by rows of pillars. Such pillars rested on stone foundations that often survived even when the rest of the building had been destroyed, thus allowing modern archaeologists to identify many remains of pillared houses.
Stone pillars (obelisks) were used in religious worship in ancient Israel, such as those erected by Jacob (Gen. 28:18, 22; 35:14). A pillar could also commemorate a covenant (Gen. 31:45; Exod. 24:4; Josh. 24:26; 2Chron. 34:31) or a tomb (Gen. 35:20). In later stories, pillars are viewed negatively, as in 2Kings 18:4, where Hezekiah is credited with destroying Asherah pillars as part of a broad religious reform (see also Jer. 43:13). Archaeologists have discovered cultic pillars in the temple at Tell Arad, among other places.
The temple of Solomon at Jerusalem incorporated two highly decorated pillars, Jakin and Boaz (1Kings 7:21), made of bronze and reported to be 18 cubits (27 feet) high and 12 cubits (18 feet) in circumference, with an additional height of 5 cubits (7.5 feet) including the capital (1Kings 7:16; cf. 2Kings 25:17). When Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians in 586 BC, the bronze pillars were destroyed, and their bronze was taken to Babylon (2Kings 25:13).
In ancient cosmology, the earth and the heavens were thought to be supported by pillars (Job 9:6; 26:11; Ps. 75:3).
In the NT, the pillar is used as a metaphor for leaders in the church (Gal. 2:9) or the church itself (1Tim. 3:15).
Direct Matches
Son of Zeruiah, David’s sister, and brother of Joab,David’s general (1 Sam. 26:6; 1 Chron. 2:16), he wasan accomplished soldier in David’s army. David intervened whenAbishai sought to kill the sleeping Saul (1 Sam. 26:5–11).He accompanied his brother Joab as they pursued Saul’scommander, Abner, for killing their brother Asahel (2 Sam.2:18–24); they later murdered Abner (2 Sam. 3:30). Hecommanded an army against the Ammonites (2 Sam. 10:10–14;1 Chron. 19:11–15). David prevented him from killingShimei for cursing David (2 Sam. 16:9–12; 19:21). He ledone-third of David’s army against Absalom, David’srebellious son (2 Sam. 18:2), and an army pursuing Sheba in hisrebellion against David (2 Sam. 20:6). When the PhilistineIshbi-Benob threatened David’s life, Abishai rescued David bykilling the Philistine (2 Sam. 21:16–17). He struck downeighteen thousand Edomites in the Valley of Salt and establishedgarrisons in Edom (1 Chron. 18:12–13).
The second king of Israel (r. 1010–970 BC), founder of a dynasty that continued with his son Solomon (r. 970–931 BC), who ruled all of Israel; subsequently the remaining “sons of David” ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, until 586 BC.
David’s importance can be measured by the vast space devoted to the account of his life (1Sam. 16:1–1Kings 2:12; 1Chron. 11:1–29:30). The titles of many psalms identify him as their author. Although there are no contemporary extrabiblical references to David due to the rarity of inscriptions in Palestine at this time, the “house of David” (or Tel Dan) inscription, dated to the eighth century BC, provides an extraordinarily early reference to his dynasty.
David and Saul
Human kingship is a late development in Israel, but a number of ancient texts anticipate the establishment of the institution (Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20) and specifically the rise of a king from Judah (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:17). Thus, it is surprising that the first king of Israel is not from Judah, but from Benjamin. When the people ask Samuel for a king, he anoints Saul (1Sam. 8–12), who proves to be a tremendous disappointment. He forfeits the establishment of his dynasty when he shows a lack of confidence in God by rashly offering prebattle sacrifices (13:13–14). God then rejects Saul as king because he does not execute God’s full judgment against the Amalekites as he knows he should (15:23).
At this point the biblical history turns its attention to David. God commands Samuel to go to Bethlehem, specifically to the household of Jesse, to anoint one of his sons as the next king (1Sam. 16). In contrast to Saul, who is notable because of his tall, imposing physical stature (10:23), David is the youngest and smallest of all the children of Jesse, a simple shepherd. Nonetheless, he is the chosen one because God “looks at the heart” (16:7). However, David does not immediately assume the kingship. Indeed, his anointing is kept secret.
The first two accounts of David’s initial public appearance appear in 1Sam. 16:14–17:58. Some doubt attends the question of whether these two stories are chronologically or thematically organized, but in either case they anticipate David’s later role as psalm singer and warrior. The narrative describes David’s work in Saul’s court as a harpist whose music soothes Saul’s tormented mind (16:14–23) and tells the heroic story of David’s courageous stand against Goliath, a gigantic Philistine mercenary (1Sam. 17).
Although David never shows any signs of subversion or disloyalty, his growing popularity increases the paranoia of Saul. However, Saul cannot simply kill off such a popular figure, even though in a fit of madness he throws a spear at him (1Sam. 18:10–11). Saul instead settles on a plan that would lead to David’s death on the battlefield. Saul offers his daughter to David in marriage. After an abortive first attempt involving his daughter Merab, Saul invites him to marry Michal, though as a bride-price he asks through his attendants for one hundred Philistine foreskins (1Sam. 18:25). Saul assumes that David will surely die in the attempt to obtain them, but instead David kills two hundred Philistines and marries Michal. The alliance to the royal house strengthens his later bid for the throne, but for the moment it serves the purpose of making Saul even more suspicious.
While Saul’s hostility increases toward David, Saul’s son Jonathan develops an intense personal friendship with David (1Sam. 18:1–4). Jonathan recognizes his father’s weaknesses and understands that he will not be the next king. He helps David escape his father’s wrath, and forever afterward David is kind to the descendants of Jonathan (1Sam. 19–20).
Eventually, Saul’s murderous intentions toward David become so intense that he must leave the court and live in the hinterlands, moving from place to place, staying one step ahead of Saul and his men. He is not alone, however. With him is an army of six hundred men, a prophet (Gad), and the high priest (Abiathar). In essence, he functions as a kingdom in exile. He saves the Judean city of Keilah from the Philistines (1Sam. 23:1–6) and protects the flocks of Judean landowners such as the aptly named Nabal (“fool”) (1Sam. 25). The latter is not properly grateful for the help, and David is ready to avenge himself against him. Fortunately, Nabal’s wife, Abigail, wisely intercedes with David. Nabal dies of other causes, and David marries Abigail.
David is to be the next king, but he is no usurper. Two times during this period (1Sam. 24; 26) David’s men are in a position to dispatch the king. It may even be possible to justify such a move because Saul is pursuing David to kill him. David knows, however, that it is wrong to harm the anointed of the Lord. He is not going to manipulate the situation and grasp the kingship; he will wait on the Lord’s own timing. David continues to keep out of Saul’s way, even seeking refuge with the Philistines for a period of time.
Eventually, however, Saul’s moment of judgment comes. Saul’s final battle is against the Philistines, the major foreign force still inside the borders of the promised land. Both Saul and Jonathan meet their end on Mount Gilboa, and David sings songs that express his sadness over their deaths (1Sam. 31–2Sam. 1).
David’s Kingship
Even with Saul out of the way, David’s rise to kingship is not easy. He is immediately crowned king of Judah (2Sam. 2:1–7), but the northern tribes choose to follow Ish-Bosheth, the son of Saul. War erupts between the two kingdoms. Eventually, though, the powerful general Abner abandons his support of Saul’s son, sealing the end of that dynasty. Ish-Bosheth is killed by his own men, and soon David becomes king over all Israel (5:1–5).
David’s kingship leads to significant victories that, in essence, complete the conquest of Canaan by finally subduing all the internal enemies. His men take the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and he makes it his capital (2Sam. 5:6–16). He also defeats the Philistines, who have been a thorn in the side of Israel for years (5:17–25; for other victories, see 8:1–14). In celebration, David brings the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2Sam. 6).
The David narrative reaches its apex when God enters into a covenant with him that establishes his dynasty (2Sam. 7; 1Chron. 17). After David dies, his son will succeed him, and indeed his dynasty lasts for many hundreds of years (see below).
David is a good king, but not a perfect king. A turning point in his reign comes in 2Sam. 11. Up to this point, David has been content with what God has given him. He does not grasp for anything that does not belong to him. However, when he sees the beautiful Bathsheba bathing, he sends messengers to bring her to his house, where the two have sexual intercourse and she becomes pregnant. In an attempt to conceal this sin of adultery, he orders the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. Thus, he adds the crime of murder to that of adultery.
David thinks that the sin is secret, but nothing is hidden from God, who sends his prophet Nathan to confront David (2Sam. 12; cf. Ps. 51). The difference between Saul and David is not that the latter is perfect but rather that David, as opposed to Saul, repents when he sins. Thus, God allows his reign to continue. Even so, David feels the consequences of his sin. First, the son that Bathsheba bears from her illicit union with David is struck with illness and dies. And ever afterward, David’s family life is troubled, with great impact on the political life of Israel. Son is pitted against son (Amnon and Absalom [2Sam. 13]), as well as son against father (Absalom and David [2Sam. 15–18]). Absalom temporarily deposes his father from the throne, but David eventually regains the kingship, though at the cost of the heartbreaking loss of his son.
Even at the very end, there is conflict within David’s house. When David has grown old, another son, Adonijah, attempts to take the throne, with support from powerful people such as Joab and Abiathar. At the instigation of Bathsheba and Nathan, however, David places the son of his choosing, Solomon, on the throne (1Kings 1). David then dies after a reign of forty-one years, seven in Hebron and the rest over all Israel (1Kings 2:10–12).
David’s Legacy
The account in Chronicles emphasizes David’s role in the preparations for the building of the temple. He had wanted to build the structure, but God says that this task is not for the one who completes the conquest of Canaan (1Chron. 22:8), but rather for his son Solomon, who will inherit a stable nation and whose very name means “peace.”
David’s greatest legacy is the dynasty that bears his name. Beginning with Solomon, however, his successors do not continue his spiritual legacy. Although a number of kings do some good, only Hezekiah (r. 727–698 BC) and Josiah (r. 639–609 BC) are given unqualified approval. Eventually, the Davidic rule comes to an end in Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians (586 BC). But God is not done with his redemptive purposes, and his promise to David is that he will have a ruler on the throne “forever” (2Sam. 7:16). The NT recognizes that Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of this promise. He is the greater son of David, the one who is the Christ or Messiah, the anointed king. Jesus is the one who reigns forever in heaven. The life and the rule of David foreshadow the messianic rule of Jesus Christ.
In ancient times much of the land of Palestine was coveredwith forests, especially on the foothills. These forests were, overtime, cut down for building materials as well as to clear space forfarming. For example, Joshua responded to Ephraim’s andManasseh’s request for more land on which to settle by sayingthat they should clear as much of the forests of the hill country asthey wished (Josh. 17:15). When David was running from Saul, he usedthe forest of Hereth as a hiding place (1Sam. 22:5). A forestalso played a significant role in the battle fought between thetroops loyal to David and those loyal to his son Absalom. Accordingto the story, “the forest swallowed up more men that day thanthe sword” (2Sam.18:8). As Absalom was fleeing afterdefeat, he too was claimed by the forest when his head became stuckin a low-lying branch that prevented him from escaping (2Sam.18:9), whereupon Joab and his armor-bearers killed him. Throughoutthe OT there are examples in which a forest is personified aspraising God (Ps. 96:12) or receiving punishment in the form of fire(Jer. 21:14).
A region within the territory assigned to the tribes ofJoseph in the hill country of Ephraim, it ran across the Jordan,coming close to Mahanaim in the east (2Sam. 17:27; 18:6–8).The region was claimed by the tribe of Joseph (the tribes of Manassehand Ephraim) because their initial allotment was too small (Josh.17:14–18), although it was acknowledged to be difficult ground.The battle between Absalom’s and David’s forces tookplace here, with the difficult terrain enabling David’s smallerand more mobile force to win, though the forest still killed morethan did the soldiers. Absalom died in the forest when his headbecame lodged in a tree, and he then was killed by Joab and hisattendants (2Sam. 18:9–15).
A controlled point of entry into an otherwise enclosed areasuch as a city (Gen. 34:24; Ps. 122:2; Acts 9:24), camp (Exod.32:26–27), tabernacle court (Exod. 35:17), palace (2Kings11:19), temple area (Jer. 36:10; Ezek. 40), prison (Acts 12:10), orhouse (Acts 10:17).
Inthe OT, the city gate has a central role in that city’smilitary, economic, judicial, political, and religious aspects oflife. A key component of the defense system of a city, the gateconsists of doors fortified with bars (Judg. 16:3; Ps. 107:16; Nah.3:13) and keeps invading armies out while also serving as the pointof departure and return for the city’s army (2Sam. 18:4;cf. God the warrior entering in Ps. 24:7–8). The gate also mayserve as the location where news of the battle is delivered (1Sam.4:18; 2Sam. 18:24). The destruction of the city gate usuallymeans the destruction of the city (Isa. 24:12).
Inthe economic life of the city, the gate functions as a place ofcommerce (Gen. 23; 2Kings 7:1) and music (Lam. 5:14). At theentrance to the city gate, the city elders assembled daily to hearcases and render judgment (Job 29:7; Prov. 24:7). Along with theelders, there might be additional witnesses (Ruth 4:1–11; Ps.69:12). For criminal cases, the gate may also be the location wherepunishment is enacted (Deut. 17:5; 22:24). Thus, the gate is to be aplace where all people can come to obtain justice (2Sam.15:2–4; Isa. 29:21; Amos 5:15). The gate may hold a seatreserved for the king (2Sam. 19:8) as well as the king’sofficials (Esther 2:19–21; 3:2–3). The city gate mightalso contain shrines to various gods (2Kings 23:8; cf. Acts14:13).
Acity may have more than one gate (Jer. 17:19), each having adifferent name. For example, when Nehemiah sets out to rebuild thewall and gates of Jerusalem, there is mention of the Valley Gate, theDung Gate, and the Fountain Gate (Neh. 2:11–17) as well as theSheep Gate (3:1) and the Jeshanah Gate (3:6).
Somereferences to gates refer to those of the temple area (Ezek. 44; 46;Pss. 100:4; 118:19–20). In Ezek. 48 the temple area is to havetwelve gates, each named after a tribe of Israel (Ezek. 48:30–35;cf. Rev. 21:12–25). The prophet Jeremiah proclaims the word ofthe Lord from both the city gate(s) (Jer. 17:19–27) and thetemple gate(s) (7:1–4).
Inthe NT, Jesus raises the dead son of a widow at the town gate (Luke7:11–17) and heals a lame man near the Sheep Gate (John5:1–15). Peter heals a crippled man near the temple gate (Acts3:1–10). Jesus mentions gates in his teaching, including a callto enter through the narrow gate of life (Matt. 7:13–14), andhis parable of the sheep and the gate, in which Jesus refers tohimself as the gate (John 10:1–18). See also City Gates.
(1)Thestatus of an object that is suspended from a point situated above it(e.g., Ezek. 15:3). Objects that are described as hanging in theBible include curtains (Exod. 40:21), harps (Ps. 137:2), pieces ofarmor (Ezek. 27:10–11; cf. Song 4:4), a millstone (Matt. 18:6),a snake (Acts 28:4), and Absalom (2Sam. 18:9–10).
(2)Aform of capital punishment that involves suspending the condemnedsubject from a tree or gallows. In the OT, death by hanging can bethe fate of a captured enemy king, such as the king of Ai (Josh.8:29). Hanging also may be the fate of those who conspire against oroffend a king, such as possibly happened with Pharaoh’s chiefbaker (Gen. 40:19, 22). Traditionally, hanging was understood to bethe fate of the two officials who conspired against King Xerxes(Esther 2:23) and of Haman, who conspired against the Jews of Xerxes’kingdom (Esther 7:9–10; some recent interpreters understandtheir fate to be impalement). In the NT, the crucifixion of Jesus isdescribed as a hanging (Acts 5:30; 10:39; cf. Luke 23:39).
Thesignificance of hanging an offender transcends the act of killing.Hanging often involves humiliation and a public declaration. Forinstance, Joshua hangs five rival kings from trees after they havebeen executed (Josh. 10:22–27). When the Philistines find thedead bodies of Saul and his sons, they dismember them and hang thebodies on the wall of Beth Shan (1Sam. 31:8–13; 2Sam.21:12) and Saul’s head in the temple of Dagon (1Chron.10:10). After David orders the death of Recab and Baanah, he hastheir bodies hung by the pool in Hebron without hands and feet(2Sam. 4:12). After the ten sons of Haman are killed, Xerxesapproves Esther’s request that their corpses be hung in publicdisplay (Esther 9:12–14). Lamentations speaks of the disgracethat has befallen Jerusalem, including how princes are hung by theirhands (Lam. 5:12).
Hangingalso holds theological significance. In a case of capital offenseresulting in a hanging, Israel is instructed that the corpse must notbe left hanging overnight, but rather must be buried that same day toavoid desecrating the land, “because anyone who is hung on atree [NIV: “pole”] is under God’s curse”(Deut. 21:23; cf. Gal. 3:13).
(3)Aform of suicide performed by two individuals in the Bible. Ahithophelhangs himself after he sees that his advice to Absalom regarding therevolt against David has not been followed (2Sam. 17:23). JudasIscariot hangs himself after he realizes that he has betrayedinnocent blood by offering Jesus to the authorities (Matt. 27:5; cf.Acts 1:18–19).
This term means “plain” and is employed in Gen.14:17 to designate the place where Abram met with the kings of Salemand Sodom (“the Valley of Shaveh, that is, the King’sValley”). Since the King’s Valley is also mentioned in2Sam. 18:18 (where Absalom erected a monument), it seems likelythat the “Valley of Shaveh” refers to a place at theconfluence of the Hinnom, Tyropoeon, and Kidron valleys, just southof Jerusalem. See also Shaveh Kiriathaim.
The hybrid of a female horse and a male donkey. Althoughusually sterile, mules were prized possessions in the biblical worldfor their versatility and prestige. As luxury items, they were thepreferred mount for Israelite kings and princes during the earlymonarchy (2Sam. 13:29; 18:9; 1Kings 1:33, 38, 44; 18:5).The connection between mules and royalty is also attested for thekings of Mari in the eighteenth centuryBC.
Itis unknown how the Israelites acquired mules. Crossbreeding isforbidden in Lev. 19:19. The presence of hybrids in ancient Israelmay indicate either that the Israelites did not follow this law orthat they acquired mules only from their neighbors via trade ortribute.
A mineral cluster or rock. Although the terms “rock”and “stone” are occasionally used synonymously, “rock”usually refers to a large geological formation such as a cliff, cave,outcropping, or bedrock, while “stone” is preferred whenthe rock is small enough to be fashioned or handled by human beings.“Stone” can also function as an adjective, referring to amaterial made of stone, or as a verb, referring to the casting ofstones.
Rocksand stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12;Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as asign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2Sam. 18:17), as a markeror memorial (Gen. 31:46–50), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). Asingle rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen.28:22; 35:14, 20; 1Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones(Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also beused to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb,such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus(Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).
Stonewas used as a construction material, particularly for the temple(1Kings 5:15–18; 1Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15;Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundationand for the cornerstone or capstone (1Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26;Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becomingthe cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus(Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1Pet. 2:7; cf.Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh.8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments wereinscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1Kings 8:9; cf.2Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai theIsraelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed”stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). Thephrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, sincestone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf.Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); theterm “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to anidol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer.3:9; Ezek. 20:32).
Stoneswere used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown byhand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1Sam.17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone”refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typicallyfunctioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29;Deut. 21:20–21; 1Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd(Exod. 17:4; 1Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).
Thephrases “precious stones” and “costly stones”refer to gems (2Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1Cor.3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1Kings10:2, 10–11; 2Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and fordecoration (1Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones onthe high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on hisbreastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12,17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of preciousstones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).
Rocksand stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as arock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common(1Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12),hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless(Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone”describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumblingstone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble(Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faithin Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1Pet. 2:8).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
2 Samuel 18:1-18
is mentioned in the definition.
Son of Zeruiah, David’s sister, and brother of Joab,David’s general (1 Sam. 26:6; 1 Chron. 2:16), he wasan accomplished soldier in David’s army. David intervened whenAbishai sought to kill the sleeping Saul (1 Sam. 26:5–11).He accompanied his brother Joab as they pursued Saul’scommander, Abner, for killing their brother Asahel (2 Sam.2:18–24); they later murdered Abner (2 Sam. 3:30). Hecommanded an army against the Ammonites (2 Sam. 10:10–14;1 Chron. 19:11–15). David prevented him from killingShimei for cursing David (2 Sam. 16:9–12; 19:21). He ledone-third of David’s army against Absalom, David’srebellious son (2 Sam. 18:2), and an army pursuing Sheba in hisrebellion against David (2 Sam. 20:6). When the PhilistineIshbi-Benob threatened David’s life, Abishai rescued David bykilling the Philistine (2 Sam. 21:16–17). He struck downeighteen thousand Edomites in the Valley of Salt and establishedgarrisons in Edom (1 Chron. 18:12–13).
Beingaccursed means being subject to judgment from God. “Curse”is used to translate several Hebrew and Greek words. The Hebrew word’arur appears repeatedly in Deut. 27:15–26; 28:16–19,passages that threaten consequences for both the land and itsinhabitants if the latter disobey the covenant stipulations. Jeremiahfrequently warned of desolation of the land as a result of thepeople’s detestable acts.
Arelated Hebrew term, kherem, indicates giving over to divine wrathand destruction those who are in opposition to God (Josh. 6:17; 7:1;1 Sam. 15:21). The Hebrew root qll carries the sameconnotations. One hung on a tree was under God’s curse (Deut.21:22–23). This judgment likewise could apply to the land(2 Kings 22:19).
Paulemployed the Greek term anathema, indicating the object of a curse(Gal. 1:8; cf. Rom. 9:3). This word is used in the LXX to translateboth ’arur and kherem. Paul also used the Greek termepikataratos in Gal. 3:10–13, citing Deut. 27:26; 21:23 in hisargument to keep the Galatians from returning to observing the law.All humans stand under God’s judgment, but Jesus becameaccursed for us.
SomeOT narratives describe death while hanging on a tree for those whowere enemies of God’s people and whose judgment was assured(Josh. 10:26; 2 Sam. 18:9–10). The ram caught in thethicket that served as Isaac’s substitute (Gen. 22:13) isperhaps an adumbration of Jesus’ substitutionary act on thecross (see 1 Pet. 2:24).
Beingaccursed means being subject to judgment from God. “Curse”is used to translate several Hebrew and Greek words. The Hebrew word’arur appears repeatedly in Deut. 27:15–26; 28:16–19,passages that threaten consequences for both the land and itsinhabitants if the latter disobey the covenant stipulations. Jeremiahfrequently warned of desolation of the land as a result of thepeople’s detestable acts.
Arelated Hebrew term, kherem, indicates giving over to divine wrathand destruction those who are in opposition to God (Josh. 6:17; 7:1;1 Sam. 15:21). The Hebrew root qll carries the sameconnotations. One hung on a tree was under God’s curse (Deut.21:22–23). This judgment likewise could apply to the land(2 Kings 22:19).
Paulemployed the Greek term anathema, indicating the object of a curse(Gal. 1:8; cf. Rom. 9:3). This word is used in the LXX to translateboth ’arur and kherem. Paul also used the Greek termepikataratos in Gal. 3:10–13, citing Deut. 27:26; 21:23 in hisargument to keep the Galatians from returning to observing the law.All humans stand under God’s judgment, but Jesus becameaccursed for us.
SomeOT narratives describe death while hanging on a tree for those whowere enemies of God’s people and whose judgment was assured(Josh. 10:26; 2 Sam. 18:9–10). The ram caught in thethicket that served as Isaac’s substitute (Gen. 22:13) isperhaps an adumbration of Jesus’ substitutionary act on thecross (see 1 Pet. 2:24).
The books of Samuel tell the story of how kingship began in Israel and was subsequently secured under David. Almost all of David’s own story is recounted in Samuel, including God’s promise to him of a dynasty. This promise became a key seedbed for the messianic hope within the OT, which finds its fulfillment in Jesus as David’s son (Matt. 1:1).
Genre and Purpose
Samuel is part of a block of texts running from Joshua through Kings (excluding Ruth), which is known in the Hebrew Bible as the Former Prophets. This block offers a more or less continuous account of Israel’s life in the land of promise from its entry under Joshua until the exile after Jerusalem was captured by the Babylonians (2Kings 25). Any assessment of the genre and purpose of Samuel must consider its relationship to these surrounding texts, though it should also recognize the distinctive elements of Samuel itself.
At its simplest, Samuel is a work of narrative prose that tells how kingship began in Israel and was secured under David after the failure of Saul, though it also contains a number of important poems. Although contemporary history writing would not be done in the same way, since Samuel points to the ways in which God is active throughout this time, Samuel certainly offers a testimony to this crucial period in Israel’s history. It is not the whole story of the period, as its testimony is concerned with a specific set of issues, and that testimony is related through God’s purposes for Samuel, Saul, and David. But this observation is vital for appreciating that Samuel is not just the story of how kingship came to Israel but is specifically a theological examination of it. It explores how God was at work, fulfilling the hope for kingship that had been expressed through Judg. 17–21, while also providing hope that the exile was not the end of his purposes for Israel as a whole and the kings of David’s line in particular. We should not think of this as a dry piece of history writing, for an important element is also that the telling of this story should entertain and grip those who either read or (perhaps more likely) heard it. Knowing that God had acted in the past for his people and that these actions continued to be important was not enough; the excitement that this should generate also needed to be apparent in the skill with which the story was told.
Outline
I. The Rise of Samuel (1Sam. 1–7)
II. The Birth of Monarchy (1Sam. 8–12)
III. Saul’s Early Reign and Rejection (1Sam. 13–15)
IV. Long Rivalry Narrative: David and Saul (1Sam.16–2Sam. 1)
A. David’s anointing and arrival at court (1Sam. 16–17)
B. David within Saul’s court (1Sam. 18–20)
C. David as an outlaw in Judah (1Sam. 21–26)
D. David in Philistine territory and Saul’s death (1Sam. 27–2Sam. 1)
V. Short Rivalry Narrative: David and Ish-Bosheth (2Sam. 2:1–5:5)
VI. First Summary of David’s Reign (2Sam. 5:6–8:18)
VII. Narrative of David’s Court (2Sam. 9–20)
A. David accepts Mephibosheth (2Sam. 9)
B. The war with Ammon and David’s sin (2Sam. 10–12)
C. Long rebellion narrative: Absalom against David (2Sam. 13–19)
D. Short rebellion narrative: Sheba against David (2Sam. 20)
VIII. Second Summary of David’s Reign (2Sam. 21–24)
Composition
Authorship and sources. The books of Samuel are anonymous, and any assessment of their authorship needs to start with this basic fact. There is a tradition in the Talmud (b.B.Bat. 14b; 15a) that associates the book with Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, presumably concluding that the books of Samuel constitute the source mentioned by 1Chron. 29:29. But this reference is only to information on David’s life and thus is unlikely to refer to the whole of Samuel. Since Samuel’s own death is recorded in 1Sam. 25:1, the book’s title in our tradition (in the LXX the books of Samuel are the first two books of Kingdoms, which continue into Kings) is unlikely to refer to authorship. Rather, it is more likely that a later author has drawn together a range of source materials in order to offer a coherent testimony about the origins of kingship.
For some time, the main sources behind Samuel seemed to have been identified, and they included a series of Shiloh traditions concerning the end of the house of Eli and the rise of Samuel (1Sam. 1:1–4:1a), an ark narrative (2Sam. 4:1b–7:1; 6), traditions concerning Saul and the origins of kingship (1Sam. 7:2–15:35), a history of David’s rise (1Sam. 16:1–2Sam. 5:5), a succession narrative (2Sam. 9–20), and a Samuel appendix (2Sam. 21–24). Within this analysis, the place of 2Sam. 5:6–25 and 2Sam. 7:1–8:17 remained unclear, but the general thought was that the sources were more or less placed one after the other in their chronological sequence. But the probability of this conclusion has been challenged in recent times because the various sections of the books are clearly aware of information in other parts, so that the whole is actually well integrated. In addition, the actual boundaries of the sources remained unclear. An unfortunate effect of the source theories is that they tended to downplay some parts of the book, especially 2Sam. 21–24, as being of less importance, whereas some recent studies have shown that they are closely integrated into the rest of the book, tying together themes developed elsewhere while also showing the structural integrity of the whole of Samuel.
Samuel is likely the end product of several stages of material collected together, rather than being the product of sources that are kept intact, but it is still a unified work. Possibly the oldest material is the collection of longer poems in 1Sam. 2:1–10; 2Sam. 1:17–27; 22:1–23:7, all of which draws on common themes and language and comments on the nature of kingship. The opening and closing blocks form the bookends, raising the hope of kingship (1Sam. 2:1–10) and then commenting on how the king must submit to God’s reign (2Sam. 22:1–23:7). In the central poem (2Sam. 1:17–27) David laments the deaths of Saul and Jonathan. It is likely that these poems were joined with the stories about Samuel, Saul, and David in the ninth century BC but were then carefully placed to comment on the stories and yet also be commented on by them. Further editing may have continued until the time of Hezekiah in the late eighth century BC. Later on, more or less the whole of Samuel as we know it was included in the Former Prophets, perhaps during the exile. The important point to note here is that Samuel is a carefully composed whole and not simply a collection of source materials.
Literary devices. Evidence for the nature of the book’s composition can be seen in how it employs certain literary devices throughout. Two that are worth noting are the way the text plays with narrative chronology and employs repetition in various forms. The play with narrative chronology means that although the movement of the book is broadly chronological (moving from the origins of the monarchy to the latter period of David’s reign), not every element is recorded in its actual chronological sequence, since at some points other factors were more important. Alternatively, at some points different narrative strands are brought into a chronological relationship with one another, most notably in comparing the locations of David and Saul in 1Sam. 27–2Sam. 1. A simple example of relating material outside its chronological sequence occurs in 1Sam. 26:12, where it is said that God had caused Saul’s soldiers to sleep so that David could enter Saul’s camp only after David had reached Saul, though clearly the soldiers must already have been asleep.
At other points, the breaks with chronological sequence cover different stories about David. For example, in 2Sam. 5:17–8:14 there are four accounts about David, two in which he overcomes enemies (5:17–25; 8:1–14) and two associated with events in Jerusalem and public worship (6:1–7:29). Since 7:1 tells us that David’s desire to build a temple came after God had delivered him from all his enemies, it follows that the events of chapter 7 must have come after those of 8:1–14. Here, arranging the material to highlight the theme of public worship was more important than placing it in chronological sequence.
This same section also demonstrates the use of repetition. Hence, 5:17–25 recounts two nearly identical defeats of the Philistines in which David must trust God, while the victories in 8:1–14 are twice said to come about because God gave David victory wherever he went (8:6, 14). Similarly, both 6:1–23 and 7:1–29 depend upon interest in the ark and thus mutually interpret each other. Other large-scale repetitions include two announcements of the coming of kingship (1Sam. 2:10, 34), two announcements of the end of Eli and his family in the sanctuary at Shiloh (1Sam. 2:27–36; 3:10–14), and two times when David does not kill Saul (1Sam. 24; 26). In an oral culture, such repetitions are not evidence of poor composition but rather are a crucial tool for emphasizing the central themes being developed. In addition, variations within each repetition are a tool for increasing the audience’s interest, showing that the authors of Samuel were interested in both giving historical testimony and entertaining their audience.
Text
It is generally agreed that the text of Samuel poses more than its fair share of difficulties, something that can be seen in the often significant differences between the received Hebrew text (MT) and the early translations, especially the main Greek translation (LXX). For example, in 1Sam. 17 the best-regarded edition of the LXX lacks vv. 12–31, 50, 55–58, and even in shared material it is sometimes significantly shorter. It is generally agreed that the Greek version resolves a number of anomalies, but is this because the MT has been expanded or because the LXX has been abbreviated? In addition, three significant Samuel manuscripts were found at Qumran. Although two of these are only fragmentary, one covers significant portions of Samuel. Although the disputed portions of 1Sam. 17 are absent from it, there are some points where it appears to support the LXX and others where it agrees with the MT while also introducing some other issues of its own.
It is clear, therefore, that complex issues are involved in determining the text of Samuel, and one must avoid taking a doctrinaire position and allow each point to be resolved on its own merits. At the same time, the difficulties should not be magnified beyond reason, since large sections of the text can be established with reasonable certainty, and for all the problems, the MT remains a reliable guide. One might suggest in the case of 1Sam. 17, for example, that the LXX text represents an early attempt to address apparent difficulties in the narrative (especially the question of when Saul met David) that nevertheless failed to realize that not everything in Samuel is narrated in exact chronological order. Nevertheless, anyone who compares different translations of Samuel (e.g., NIV and NRSV) will notice variants and should make use of good commentaries at that point.
Central Themes
The reign of God. Kingship lies at the heart of Samuel. But although it is concerned with the story of Israel’s first two kings (Abimelek in Judg. 9 is an aberration and probably only a local figure), it places their story within the framework of God’s reign. No matter what authority a king in Israel might claim, it was always subject to God’s greater authority. Indeed, Samuel makes clear that God did not need a king but rather chose the monarchy as the means by which his own reign might be demonstrated.
An important way in which God’s reign is demonstrated is through the motif of the reversal of fortunes, in which the powerful are brought down and the weak raised. This is announced in Hannah’s Song (1Sam. 2:4–8) and is then demonstrated when God removed the corrupt family of Eli from their position of power in the sanctuary at Shiloh (2:27–36; 4:1–18). On the other hand, Samuel himself came to prominence even though he had no position of power. Saul, likewise, although a member of a relatively wealthy family (9:1–2), knew that he was not someone who had automatic power (9:21) but still was raised up to be king by God. Yet when he, like Eli before him, became corrupt and clung to power rather than submit to God, he too was removed so that he could be replaced (15:28–29).
David also came from a humble position as the youngest son in his family (1Sam. 16:11), but unlike Eli and Saul, he would not grasp power for himself. Indeed, he twice refused to kill Saul when he had the chance (1Sam. 24; 26) and punished those who claimed that they could exercise violence on his behalf (2Sam. 1:11–16; 4:9–12). Even when it seemed that David had later lost all to Absalom, he held to the fact that he could reign only as long as he had God’s support (2Sam. 15:25–26). This, in fact, is a central theme in 2Sam. 7 when David wanted to build a temple for God, for there it is made clear that David cannot act without God’s authority, and that his descendants will have authority as long as they too submit to God (2Sam. 7:11b–15). David’s closing songs (22:1–23:7) make clear that the king has no authority apart from God.
Kingship. Kingship in Israel is closely related to the theme of God’s reign. The possibility of kingship first arises in Hannah’s Song (1Sam. 2:10) and is confirmed by the man of God who announces the judgment against Eli’s family (2:34). Both references occur before Israel’s elders requested a king because of the failure of Samuel’s sons (8:1–9), indicating that the request for a king did not take God by surprise. In addition, it indicates that authentic kingship in Israel could only be that which was initiated by God.
The story of Saul’s rise to the throne needs to be read in light of this. Although the human move to kingship stemmed from the request of the elders for a king (1Sam. 8:4–9), it was still the case that Saul could become king only because of God’s decision. Although 1Sam. 8–12 often has been broken down into supposedly conflicting sources, it is better to read it as a unified text but to note that the narrator’s voice is not equivalent to any of the characters that speak through it. When the text is understood in this way, it is possible to appreciate that kingship was part of God’s purposes for Israel, but it needed to follow his model. Kings in Israel could prosper only when they submitted to the greater reign of God. It was Saul’s mistake that he did not recognize this. David, although he made some terrible mistakes, always understood this truth, and his closing songs (2Sam. 22:1–23:7) reflect on it. David learned what Saul never did: power is never something to be grasped; rather, it can only be accepted as a gracious gift from God to be used for his purposes.
New Testament Connections
The importance of the books of Samuel for the NT is far greater than its five direct citations there (Acts 13:22; Rom. 15:9; 2Cor. 6:18 [2×]; Heb. 1:5) might indicate. The theme of kingship and the associated promise to David in 2Sam. 7 are fundamental to the messianic hope throughout the OT and are picked up in the NT. Even when the NT cites other OT texts (such as Ps. 2) with reference to Jesus, it is still the books of Samuel that lie behind the citation. In addition, the NT frequently indicates that Jesus was a son of David (e.g., Matt. 1:1). Although such texts do not cite Samuel directly, they clearly allude to it because of God’s promise that David’s throne would be established forever (2Sam. 7:16). Jesus’ ministry transcends that of David in every way, but we cannot understand his ministry apart from David and God’s promise to him.
The economic life of the biblical world rested on theprecepts of improvement of one’s standing, stable interactionbetween individuals and nations, and the fact that all of lifebelonged first to God. The ability to create a stable economy wasdriven by international standing, military strength, andenvironmental conditions. As a state, Israel was far more successfulin creating and sustaining wealth during periods with little upheavalin the monarchy and when there was little threat from outside forces.The reign of Solomon in the united monarchy and the coterminousreigns of Uzziah in Judah and JeroboamII in Israel, therefore,represent the periods with the most favorable economic conditions,and indeed these two periods are generally considered to be goldenages of economic and cultural strength.
TheEconomy of Israel
Beforethe monarchy.The economic life of the Bible begins with the creation account andthe reflections communicated there about humankind’sstewardship of that which belongs to God. Humankind is placed in theworld as the caregiver and protector of the rest of creation. Thispurpose will have ramifications for the remainder of the biblicalstory. Throughout the Bible, God expresses a deep concern foreconomic justice and economic well-being among his people. The lawgiven by God sets out an economic and political framework that buildson this idea of justice and human stewardship of God’screation, including some rather striking passages meant to assure ajust distribution and maintenance of resources and equality (Lev.25:1–55; Deut. 10:17–18; 15:1–11). The emphasis oneconomic and social justice is closely related to spiritualfaithfulness throughout the prophetic texts. Isaiah speaks ofeconomic prosperity and peace as an integral part of God’sdesire for Israel. Amos, Jeremiah, and Micah denounce the economicinjustices within Israel. This attitude and emphasis continue intothe NT, where Jesus talks as much about economics in his teachings ashe does about the rest of the Christian life. Jesus’ primaryemphases in discussing economic matters suggest a need to recognizeboth the priority of the heavenly economy over the earthly and thefact that one’s economic activities must communicate a sense ofjustice and mercy as well.
Thelack of a centralized government and industry in the early years ofIsrael’s existence meant that much of the economy revolvedaround private ownership and agrarian realities. In conquering theland of Canaan, the Israelites were transformed from seminomads intoagriculturists, but they were still largely on their own in economicmatters. They dwelled in villages and towns and lived off of whatthey raised in their fields and the milk and meat of their livestock.There was limited trade during this period, primarily existing onlythrough opportunities provided by traveling merchants from Phoeniciaand elsewhere. The modifications that took place in the Canaanitematerial culture when they were assumed by Israel were slight innature in this early period. The period of the judges reveals abrutal culture, and the people would have remained somewhatconstrained economically in the days prior to the monarchy. As statedabove, the laws certainly are important in understanding how Israelviewed itself before God; however, it must be admitted that therewere relatively few requisites concerning business contained in itsprecepts (Lev. 19:35–36; 25:36–37, 44–45; Deut.15:2; 23:20). This may in fact reflect the more individualized natureof the early economic systems of Israel.
Themonarchy.With the beginning of the monarchy, and especially the reign ofSolomon, signs of extensive external trade begin to manifestthemselves within Israel. The primary exports seem still to have beenagricultural in nature, as Solomon is said to have sent grains andoil to Tyre in exchange for their timber and workers (1Kings5). Horses were a significant sign of wealth in the ancient world,and during his reign, Solomon apparently was able to import quite afew from Egypt (1Kings 10:28–29). Solomon is even said tohave sent ships to the far reaches of the known world to acquiregold, silver, iron, apes, and peaco*cks (1Kings 10:22). Solomonalso saw the development of an extensive system of internal economicprosperity through division of the land into districts and throughestablishing firm control of the major arteries of travel withinIsrael (1Kings 4). Unfortunately, Solomon’s successorslacked his economic acumen. Due to inner turmoil and outside forces,Israel was unable to regain the standing that it held under Solomon,except for a brief period during the reign of Uzziah. Interestingly,the prophets often equated merchants with the Canaanites (Hos. 12:7;Zeph. 1:11; Zech. 14:21). The kings of the northern kingdom of Israelseem to have fared slightly better in economic matters than did thekings of Judah. Ahab obtained a special standing in the markets ofDamascus (1Kings 20:34), and JeroboamII raised Israel topowerful status in the world’s economic perspectives.
Afterthe exile.Following the return from the exile, the Jewish community wasseverely impoverished and had very little business activity except inits larger cities (Neh. 3:31–32). Hellenism brought with it arenewal of trade capabilities, and Josephus reports that by themid-second century BC, Athenian merchants came regularly to Judea.The Maccabees captured Joppa, and Herod built Caesarea, whichultimately improved the economic standing of the Jews because theythen controlled port locations.
Lifein the NT seems not to have varied much from that in the OT, the mostimportant exception being the stability and ease of transportresulting from Roman control of the region. This stability was oftenoffset, however, by the imposition of high taxes. The NT relates thevast disparity of economic lifestyle between the enormously wealthyand the severely impoverished. There were also political andreligious ramifications to be found in the struggle to find a properresponse to taxation. This dilemma is reflected in the two opposingviewpoints among the twelve apostles, including the views of a taxcollector and of a Zealot. The early church seems to have dealt witheconomic matters with various degrees of success (Rev. 2:9; 3:17).
Coinage
Themonetary system of Israel seems to have always been based primarilyon gold and silver. In fact, the Hebrew word most often translated“money,” kesep, is the word for “silver.” Itis unclear exactly when coinage started in Israel. Opinions vary fromthe period just before the exile to several years after the exile. Upuntil that point, worth was assessed not by the value of the coin butrather by the weight of the metal. People carried their own weightsin a bag that were used to determine the value of an exchange (Deut.25:13; 2Sam. 18:12); thus, the focus for ensuring fair tradewas almost always on guarding against the use of false weights andscales (Lev. 19:36). The precursors to coinage seem to have beenpieces of silver and gold that were considered to be a certainweight, though the emphasis was still on the weight of the product(Josh. 7:21; 1Sam. 9:8). The basic standard of weight was theshekel.
ThePersians developed a more fixed system of coinage. Darius firstintroduced a reformed currency system around 520–480 BC. Thebasic standard was the daric, which was comparable to a Babylonianshekel in weight. Because of the inherent value of coins, the purityof the metals used became more important. This resulted in a slightshift in monetary imagery related to purity versus fair weight. Inthe Roman era, the denarius was the basic unit of money.
Villagesand Cities
TheOT distinguished in size between villages and cities. The smallestmeasure of communal living seems to have been farming settlements orhomesteads (Exod. 8:9; Neh. 11:25; Ps. 10:8). Larger settlements werereferred to as villages (Gen. 25:16; 1Sam. 6:18) or cities(Gen. 4:17; 19:25, 29). Cities were usually built along a lake orriver (Tiberius and Beth Shan) or where natural springs weresufficient to sustain a large population (Jerusalem and Jericho).Streets in the cities seemed to have been named after the place towhich they led or by the industry represented on them (Neh. 11:35;Isa. 7:3; Jer. 37:21). Open squares were found mainly at the gates ofthe city, where most of the commerce took place and which tended tobe the centers of city life. The gate and the adjoining open areaconstituted the marketplace, hence, names such as “Sheep Gate”(Neh. 3:1, 3, 32; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The wells sometimes weresituated here (2Sam. 23:15–16). News from the outside wasannounced first at the gate (1Sam. 4:18). Finally, court andcouncil sessions were held at the gate (Deut. 13:17; Ruth 4:11;2Kings 7:1; Job 29:7; cf. Gen. 19:7).
EconomicIssues Addressed in the Bible
Slavery.Slavery was considered legitimate in various circ*mstances, but sinceindividual possession of a slave was somewhat rare, it never became acenterpiece of the Israelite economic structures. It was a capitaloffense to kidnap people for the purpose of enslaving them (Exod.20:10–16; Deut. 24:7). When held by individual families, slaveswere to be treated as part of an extended family, and they werepermitted to partake in important festivals and to observe theSabbath (Exod. 20:10; Deut. 16:14). Ideally, slaves in debt bondageand Israelite slaves owned by foreign residents were automaticallyfreed at the Jubilee. If they had not already purchased theirfreedom, male Israelite slaves were automatically freed once they hadworked for six years (Exod. 21:2; Lev. 25:39–55); however, theprophet Jeremiah’s denunciation of the permanent enslavement ofHebrew men and women by their masters (Jer. 34:8–22) suggeststhat these practices were not faithfully executed within Israel’shistory.
Death,marriage, and redemption.The economic impact of death is addressed to some degree in thebiblical texts. Daughters who received an inheritance of land becauseof the lack of a male heir were required to marry within the tribe inorder to preserve the tribal allotments outlined by God in his giftof land to the people (Num. 27:7–8; 36:6–9). If thedeceased had no children of his own, his closest male relative wouldreceive the land (Num. 27:9–11). The levirate and go’el(“redeemer”) systems seem to have been enacted in orderto protect both widows and the property rights of the family.Marriage with a brother’s widow was forbidden as a general rule(Lev. 20:21), but when no male heir was present, the act wasconsidered obligatory (Deut. 25:5–10). Although there is somedisagreement, most would consider the case of Ruth to be not one oflevirate marriage, but instead an expression of the go’el (Lev.25:25; Jer. 32:6–9). The two systems apparently are related,with the latter being an extension of the former. But the importantdistinction is that the go’el’s duties includedredemption in much broader terms, including redemption from slavery(Lev. 25:47–55) and vengeance in the case of wrongful death(Deut. 19:6). One clear case of levirate marriage is found in theattempts of Tamar to bear a child with the brother of Er, herdeceased husband, and then eventually with Er’s father(Gen.38).
Tithing.Tithing one’s possessions was a very ancient custom thatactually predates the law codes and is found in the time of thepatriarchs. Abraham gave Melchizedek “a tenth of everything”(Gen. 14:20), and Jacob made a vow that if he returned to hisfather’s house in safety, he would acknowledge Yahweh as hisLord and would give him a tenth of all that he possessed (Gen.28:20–22). The tithe that was applied to the seed of the landor to the fruit of the tree was redeemable. The tithe of cattle, onthe other hand, was not redeemable. Determining which animal was thetithe involved counting each animal singly, and every tenth one thatpassed under the rod became the tithe animal (Lev. 27:30–33).There is apparently some disparity in the biblical texts relating toa tithe. Nehemiah 10:37–38 seems to clearly indicate that therewas only one prescribed tithe taken in the OT era. However, there arethree texts regulating the tithe in the OT (Lev. 27:30–33; Num.18:21–32; Deut. 14:22–29). It would seem, then, that eachlaw gives only a partial picture of the regulations involving thetithe, as each assumes both the presence and the regulations of theothers. The practice of the tithe in Israel involved a yearly gift tothe temple, with the gifts of every third year kept in the communityfor the care of the poor and oppressed. These laws, then, were areminder of Israel’s holy status before God and that itsenjoyment of the rewards of that status was a consequence of theirelection. Consequently, the tithe demanded recognition of God’sownership of all the land. Furthermore, by being allowed to consumepart of the tithe (Deut. 14:23), participants were reminded of thepriority of God in their economy and lives.
The Hebrew word ’elah, meaning “oak” or“terebinth” (2Sam. 18:9), is also used as a propername. (1)Atribal ruler descended from Esau (Gen. 36:40–41; 1Chron.1:52). (2)Thewicked son and successor of Baasha. Elah ruled Israel for two years(1Kings 16:6–14). (3)Thefather of Hoshea, who usurped the Israelite crown (2Kings15:30; 17:1). (4)Ason of Caleb the faithful spy (1Chron. 4:15). (5)ABenjamite living in Jerusalem before the exile (1Chron. 9:8).(6)Avalley in the Judean foothills where David killed Goliath (1Sam.17), some twelve miles west-southwest of Bethlehem. As one of severalfertile valleys in this region between the Philistines on the coastalplain and the Israelites in the hill country, the Elah Valley was anatural battleground between the two peoples.
In the Bible, gestures are made with either parts of the bodyor items, such as clothing and rings, directly connected to the body.For this reason, it makes sense to classify biblical gestures inrelation to the different body parts that are identified with thegestures. It is, however, challenging to know where to draw a line onclassifying a gesture. For example, a devious person is described inProv. 6:13 as one “who winks maliciously with his eye, signalswith his feet and motions with his fingers.” It is unclearwhether this is a single gesture or multiple ones, and whether allsignify different things or the same thing.
Head
Gesturesthat relate to the head range from simple head motions to semiviolentacts such as hair pulling. Simple head motions include lifting ofone’s head in honor (Gen. 40:13), bowing one’s head inmourning (Ps. 35:14), tossing one’s head in mockery andderision (2Kings 19:21), and shaking one’s head as insult(Ps. 22:7; Mark 15:29).
Acommon action is the shaving of the head, which can be forpurification (Lev. 14:8–9; Num. 6:9; 8:7 [includes all bodyhair]), mourning (Deut. 21:11–13; Job 1:20; Isa. 15:2; Jer.16:6; 47:5; 48:37; Ezek. 27:31; Amos 8:10; Mic. 1:16), remorse (Jer.41:5), or shaming (Jer. 2:16). However, priests are forbidden fromshaving their heads even in mourning (Lev. 21:5; Ezek. 44:20), whilethe high priest is to wear a turban on his head during sacrificialduties (Exod. 29:6).
Anointingof the head is done when a priest or king is installed (Exod. 29:7;Ps. 23:5) or simply as a sign of God’s goodness and blessing ona person (Eccles. 9:8). Blessing may also involve placing a hand onthe head of the person being blessed (Gen. 48:14–18; Exod.29:19), while the same gesture on the head of sacrificial animals isa symbolic means of transferring sin (Lev. 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24,29, 33; 8:18, 22).
Inthe OT, a woman’s head can be shaved in mourning (Deut.21:12–13; cf. Jer. 47:5), but in the NT, a shaved head can be acause for disgrace (1Cor. 11:5–6).
Face.Facial gestures range from expressions to actions such as touching orcovering the face. A face can be downcast in anger (Gen. 4:5–6)or bowed to the ground in honor (Gen. 48:12), in dejection (Josh.7:6), in humility (Ruth 2:10), in worship (2Chron. 20:18; Ps.138:2), in subjection, supplication, reverence (1Sam. 20:41;25:41; 28:14; 2Sam. 14:4, 22; 18:28; 24:20; 1Kings 1:23;1Chron. 21:20), or in dread (e.g., Moses before Yahweh [Exod.3:6]).
Theface can be covered or veiled as an indication of uncleanness (Lev.13:45), in grief/mourning (2Sam. 19:4; Ezek. 24:17), inresignation (1Kings 19:13), with intent to deceive in adultery(Job 24:15), or in horror of judgment (Esther 7:8; Ezek. 12:6, 12).It can also be buried in the dust in remorse (Lam. 3:29).
Godcan be described as hiding or turning away his face againstwickedness and evil (Deut. 31:18; 32:20; Ps. 34:16; Isa. 8:17; Jer.33:5; Ezek. 7:22; 15:7; 20:46; 21:2) or in an act of withholdingblessings (Job 13:15; Pss. 10:1; 13:1; 27:9; 30:7; 34:16; Isa. 54:8;59:2; 64:7). God can also turn his face toward a place in judgment(Ezek. 4:3, 7; 6:2). In 1Sam. 5:3–4 the idol of thePhilistine god Dagon falls facedown before the ark of the covenant,apparently overpowered by Yahweh.
Actsof humiliation or dishonor can involve spitting in the face (Num.12:14; Deut. 25:9; Job 17:6; 30:10; Isa. 50:6), slapping the face(1Kings 22:24; 2Chron. 18:23; Job 16:10; Lam. 3:30; Mic.5:1), pulling a skirt up over someone’s face in shamingjudgment (Jer. 13:26; Nah. 3:5), and hooking and dragging someone bythe nose (2Kings 19:28). Although being struck on the cheek ishumiliating, Jesus instructs his disciples to “turn the othercheek” as a sign of resistance to violence (Matt. 5:39; Luke6:29).
Onecan lift one’s face in worship (2Kings 20:2; Job 22:26;Isa. 38:2) or in confidence (Job 11:15) and can fail to lift it inshame and disgrace (Ezra 9:6). Although the shaving of beards inmourning is common practice (Ezra 9:3; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37),the forced shaving of beards is an act of shaming and insulting(2Sam. 10:4; 1Chron. 19:4–5; Isa. 7:20; 50:6).
Eyes.Winking the eye is perceived as an evil, deceptive, or malicious act(Ps. 35:19; Prov. 6:13; 16:30). Eyes can be lifted up in worship andexpectation (Pss. 121:1; 123:1).
Mouth.Pursed lips can characterize an evil person (Prov. 16:30), while ahand can be clapped over the mouth in awe and submission (Job 21:5;40:4). Psalm 72:9 looks to the righteous king before whom the deserttribes will bow and whose “enemies lick the dust” indefeat.
Ears.An Israelite slave for life is to have a hole punched through his orher earlobe, held against a doorpost, with an awl (Exod. 21:6; Deut.15:17). Blood is sprinkled on the lobe of the right ear forpurification (Exod. 29:20; Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17), whilesupplication can be described as asking for the turning of an ear(2Kings 19:16; Ps. 31:2). Turning one’s ear signifiespaying attention or taking something to heart (Ps. 49:4; Prov. 4:20;5:13).
Neck.The neck can be adorned (Song 1:10) as a sign of pride and honor(Gen. 41:42; Judg. 5:30; Prov. 1:9; Ezek. 16:11) or outstretched inarrogance (Ps. 75:5 TNIV: “Do not lift your horns againstheaven; do not speak with outstretched neck”). Jeremiah put ayoke on his neck as a prophetic sign of the approaching Babylonianconquest (Jer. 27–28). While putting someone’s neck in ayoke is an act of triumphal conquest (Ps. 105:18), stepping on theneck of a subdued enemy is an act of subjugation and humiliation(Josh. 10:24).
Body
Nakednessin public is considered shameful (Gen. 9:22–23; Nah. 3:5; Rev.3:18), so that it is sometimes pictured as part of divine judgment(Deut. 28:48; Isa. 47:2–3; Lam. 1:8; Mic. 1:11) or as a sign ofpromiscuity (Isa. 57:8; Ezek. 16:36). An unkempt body can be a signof mourning, as it is for Mephibosheth (2Sam. 19:24). A certainkind of body covering is a sign of marriage proposal or protection(Ezek. 16:8; 23:18; Hos. 2:9). Body dismembering, even in war, is anact of humiliation (2Sam. 4:12).
Chest.In self-mortification, one can pound one’s chest in mourning(Ezek. 21:12) or in remorse (Jer. 31:19; Luke 18:13). The breasts ofsacrificial animals are waved before God as a “wave offering”before being eaten (Exod. 29:26; Lev. 7:30; Num. 6:20).
Hand,arm.Hand gestures include motions such as lifting hands in worship,clapping hands in joy, and clapping a hand over one’s mouth inawe. The expression “outstretched arm” (Exod. 6:6; Deut.4:34; 5:15; 7:19; 9:29; 11:2; 26:8; 1Kings 8:42; 2Kings17:36; 2Chron. 6:32; Ps. 136:12; Jer. 21:5; 27:5; 32:17, 21;Ezek. 20:33–34) indicates power, might, strength. It is oftenused of God to indicate his ability to defeat powerful armies andenemies. God is implored by the psalmist to lift his hand and act forthe sake of the righteous (Ps. 10:12).
Sincethe right hand is the hand of power, the act of sitting at the righthand indicates being favored (1Kings 2:19; Ps. 110:1; Matt.22:44; Mark 12:36; Luke 20:43; Acts 2:35; Heb. 1:3; 8:1; 10:12; 12:2;1Pet. 3:22). When taking an oath, one places a hand under thethigh/crotch (Gen. 24:2; 47:29), most likely the right hand (see Gen.48:14, 17–18; Lev. 8:23; 14:14).
Clappingthe hands can be a sign of awe (Ezek. 6:11), malice, or remorse(25:6), while a bared arm can be a sign of judgment (4:7). Job clapshis hand over his mouth in awe of God and in submission andrepentance (Job 40:4–5).
Handscan be lifted in worship (1Kings 8:22; 1Tim. 2:8), tobeseech (Ps. 28:2), to protect and bless (Ps. 10:12), in an oath(Deut. 32:40), or to harm (Exod. 24:11; 1Sam. 24:6, 10;2Sam.1:14; 18:12).
Pilatewashes his hands to proclaim his innocence over the death of Jesus(Matt. 27:24), while 1Pet. 5:6 urges believers to humblethemselves “under God’s mighty hand,” so that indue time they will be lifted up.
Buttocks.Exposure of the buttocks can serve as a humiliating insult andprovocation, as happens to David’s men (2Sam. 10:4;1Chron. 19:4) and Egyptian and Cush*te captives (Isa. 20:4).
Leg.The leg or thigh is often a euphemism for the male reproductiveorgans, so that putting one’s hand under a thigh in oath (Gen.24:2; 47:29) may involve actually grabbing the genitalia. Animalthighs are waved to God in offering before being consumed (Lev. 9:21;10:14; Num. 6:20), while oaths administered to uncover adultery causea guilty woman’s thighs to waste (Num. 5:2–27).
Themost common gesture involving the knee is bowing, in worship orreverence (Deut. 33:3; Isa. 45:23; Rom. 11:4; 14:11; Phil. 2:10), indefeat (2Sam. 22:40; Ps. 18:38; Isa. 60:14), in distress (Ps.57:6), or in respect (1Kings 1:31). In what seems to be asomewhat awkward position, Elijah puts his face between his knees inprayer (1Kings 18:42).
Feet.Gestures involving the feet are probably the most common gestures inthe Bible. Feet can be washed in hospitality (Gen. 18:4; 19:2; 24:32;43:24; 1Sam. 25:41), in ablution (Exod. 30:19, 21; 40:31), orin supplication (1Sam. 25:41). Feet can be bathed in oil as ablessing (Deut. 33:24), uncovered in marriage proposals (Ezek. 16:8;cf. Ruth 3:4, 7), and stamped in remorse (Ezek. 25:6), and sandalscan be removed from them in honor (Exod. 3:1–10) or disgrace(Deut. 25:9). The heavenly seraphs cover their feet in supplicationbefore the throne of God (Isa. 6:2), while the feet of humans cansignal deception (Prov. 6:13).
Enemiescan be placed under one’s feet in subjugation (1Kings5:3; Pss. 8:6; 18:39; 45:5; 47:3; 110:1; Mal. 4:3; Rom. 16:20), havetheir feet shackled or ensnared (Job 13:27; 33:11; Pss. 25:15;105:18), and be forced to lick the feet of victors in humiliation anddefeat (Isa. 49:23). The righteous will bathe their feet in the bloodof their enemies in revenge (Pss. 58:10; 68:23).
Thoseoverwhelmed can grovel at the feet of the powerful (2Kings4:27, 37; Esther 8:3; Matt. 28:9; Mark 5:33; 7:25; Acts 10:25), whilethose emboldened can rise to their feet in confidence (Ezek. 2:1–2;3:24; Dan. 8:18).
Inthe NT, dust can be shaken off one’s feet as an indication ofdivine judgment (Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; Luke 9:5), even as lying ata person’s feet is a recognition of authority/submission (Matt.15:30; Mark 5:33; Luke 8:28, 35, 41, 47; 10:39; 17:16; Acts 4:37;5:2). A woman publicly washes Jesus’ feet with her tears, wipesthem with her hair, and kisses and perfumes them in what seems an actof love and repentance; but Jesus indicates that she has prepared hisbody for burial (Luke 7:38–46; John 11:2; 12:3). Jesus washeshis disciples’ feet as instruction on servanthood anddiscipleship (John 13:5–14).
Fingers,Toes.Different fingers seem to have different roles assigned them. Afinger sprinkles blood in cleansing (Lev. 4:6, 17, 25, 30, 34; 8:15;9:9; 14:16; 16:14, 19; Num. 19:4), while blood on the tip of theright thumb and on the right big toe is for cleansing (Exod. 29:20;Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17, 25, 28).
Onewears a signet ring as a sign of power (Esther 3:10) or a gesture ofrestoration and forgiveness (Luke 15:22). But fingers can also motionin deception (Prov. 6:13) or point in blame (Isa. 58:9). Jesus writeswith his finger on the ground, apparently as a gesture ofindifference to those pointing accusing fingers (John 8:6).
Clothesand Shoes
Garments.Garments attain significance as they are related to specificemotions. Wearing sackcloth and ashes in mourning is common (Gen.37:34; Ezek. 7:18; 2Sam. 3:31), while ripping garments inmourning is also frequently attested (Gen. 37:34; 44:13; Lev. 10:6;21:10; Josh. 7:6; 2Sam. 1:11; 3:31; 13:31; 1Kings 21:27;2Kings 2:12; 19:1; Esther 4:1; Isa. 32:11; 37:1; Jer. 41:5).
Rippingsomeone’s clothing to expose nakedness (Ezek. 16:39; 2Sam.10:4) or pulling a person’s skirts up over the face (Jer.13:26) is an act of shaming or insulting. But tearing one’sclothes off can be a sign of fury (Matt. 26:65). Persons withdefiling diseases are expected to warn off others by wearing tornclothes and shouting, “Unclean! Unclean!” (Lev. 13:45).
Bylaying their clothes at Saul’s feet, the crowd may beacknowledging his authority in the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58).
Sandals.A woman can remove a man’s sandal in contempt (Deut. 25:5–10),while a sandal can be removed by a kinsman-redeemer to indicategiving up a right or as a transfer of property (Ruth 4:7–8). Asandal can also be removed in mourning (Ezek. 24:17) or be cast overa piece of land to claim ownership (Pss. 60:8; 108:9).
PropheticGestures
Propheticgestures in the OT are mostly concerned with the call to repentanceand approaching judgments upon failure to heed the warning. Jeremiahputs a yoke on his neck (Jer. 27–28; cf. Deut. 28:48), Ezekielcooks with dung (Ezek. 4:12) and sleeps on his left side for 390 daysand then on his right side for 40 days (4:5–6), Isaiah stripsoff his clothing (Isa. 20:2–3; 32:11), and Hosea marries anunfaithful wife (Hos. 1:1–3).
Inthe NT, Jesus cleanses the temple as an act of symbolic judgment(Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15). He also breaks bread and drinkswine (Matt. 26:26; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19; 24:30, 35; Acts 2:46;20:11; 27:35; 1Cor. 11:24–25) and washes his disciples’feet (John 13:1–13), thereby establishing symbolic Christianpractices.
A revolt against governmental authority. David leads aninsurrection against Saul (1Sam. 19–31; see 2Sam.18). Barabbas, the prisoner whom Pilate releases in response to thecrowd seeking Jesus’ crucifixion, probably is a terroristcaptured during another insurrection (Mark 15:7; Luke 23:19, 25). InActs, the Pharisee Gamaliel mentions an insurrection led by Judas theGalilean against Rome (Acts 5:37), and a Roman army officer asksPaul, “Aren’t you the Egyptian who started a revolt andled four thousand terrorists out into the desert some time ago?”(21:38). Josephus describes several rebellions, which culminated inthe first Jewish War (AD 66–70).
This term means “plain” and is employed in Gen.14:17 to designate the place where Abram met with the kings of Salemand Sodom (“the Valley of Shaveh, that is, the King’sValley”). Since the King’s Valley is also mentioned in2Sam. 18:18 (where Absalom erected a monument), it seems likelythat the “Valley of Shaveh” refers to a place at theconfluence of the Hinnom, Tyropoeon, and Kidron valleys, just southof Jerusalem. See also Shaveh Kiriathaim.
This term means “plain” and is employed in Gen.14:17 to designate the place where Abram met with the kings of Salemand Sodom (“the Valley of Shaveh, that is, the King’sValley”). Since the King’s Valley is also mentioned in2Sam. 18:18 (where Absalom erected a monument), it seems likelythat the “Valley of Shaveh” refers to a place at theconfluence of the Hinnom, Tyropoeon, and Kidron valleys, just southof Jerusalem. See also Shaveh Kiriathaim.
One of the tribes of Israel, descended from Joseph’ssecond son, Ephraim (Gen. 46:20). Occasionally, the tribes of Ephraimand Manasseh were described together as the tribe of Joseph (Deut.33:13), but usually they were listed separately in censuses, tribalmovements, and territorial descriptions (Num. 2:24). The territory ofEphraim included the central hill country, with Manasseh to the northand Benjamin to the south (Josh. 16). The territory of Ephraim playeda prominent role during the period of the judges. Deborah held courtin the hill country of Ephraim (Judg. 4:5). The Ephraimites contendedwith Gideon (Judg. 8:1) and later went to war with Jephthah (12:4).Ephraim played a role in the revolts against David, with Absalombeing killed in Ephraim (2Sam. 18:6) and Sheba being fromEphraim (20:21). Ephraim grew in prominence to represent the entirenorthern kingdom (Isa. 7:2; Ezek. 37:16).
Sonsof Jacob
Genesis29–30, 35 records the birth of the sons of Jacob, whichprovides a covenantal and family basis for the later confederation ofa dozen independent tribes of Semitic peoples. They shared a commonhistory, culture, religion, and set of traditions that served for atime to bind them together as a single nation. According to thefamily records, the tribes were named after their forebears, who wereborn in the following manner. Jacob’s first (and unloved) wife,Leah, bore Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah, in that order. Then hisbeloved Rachel gave him her maid Bilhah, who bore Dan and Naphtali.Leah’s maid then bore Gad and Asher. Then Leah bore Issacharand Zebulun. Finally, Rachel bore Joseph and Benjamin. At root, thelater history of the tribes is a family history, traceable toAbraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Thus, the story of the tribes begins inthe early second millennium BC.
Genesiswas written at a period considerably after the time of thepatriarchs, and thus written with the awareness that thecharacterizations of the patriarchs reflected in some way thetemperament of the individual tribes. The first story told about theactions of Jacob’s sons is how Simeon and Levi took terriblevengeance on the city of Shechem for the rape of their sister Dinah.This brought about Jacob’s rebuke. Jacob feared that thisaction would bring further retaliation upon his family (Gen. 34). Thehistory of the patriarchs comes to its high point in the story ofJoseph, an account that spans Gen. 37–50. Joseph was thebrother revealed in dreams to be elected by God to rule. Hisbrothers’ jealousy led them to seek to rid themselves of him.Reuben, the firstborn, is characterized as being the responsible one,wanting to do him no harm. But in Reuben’s absence, Judah ledthe others in selling Joseph into slavery. God was with Joseph,however, and through a series of events God made Joseph the leader ofEgypt, fulfilling the prophetic dreams.
Genesisconnects this family story with later tribal history. As propheticdreams revealed Joseph’s destiny to rule over Egypt, Jacob’sblessing in Gen. 49 reveals the destiny of the later tribes. Reubenlost his double-portion inheritance of the firstborn due to hisdishonoring his father (Gen. 35:22). This honor is tacitly conferredon Joseph in Gen. 48. Jacob said that Levi would be dispersed amongIsrael. As the priestly tribe, Levi inherited no land. Judah waspredicted to be the tribe of kings.
Wildernessand Conquest
Inthe wilderness wanderings of Israel, the campsite was organized bytribe (Num. 2). At its center was the tabernacle. The tribe of Leviformed an inner circle that surrounded it. At the entrance to thetabernacle (facing east) were the priests, the sons of Aaron. Theother divisions of Levi were the Merarites, the Gershonites, and theKohathites. These together formed the inner circle that guarded theholy place. Levi was the holiest tribe of Israel, the only tribeallowed to maintain and service God’s dwelling place. The outerperimeter of the encampment was formed by twelve tribes (the tribe ofJoseph counted as two). The eastern front was dominated by Judah andincluded Issachar and Zebulun. Dan, Asher, and Naphtali were to thenorth; Reuben, Simeon,and Gad to the south; and to the westwere Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) and Benjamin.
Whenthe people were on the move, the priests went in the front carryingthe ark of the covenant, following the pillar of cloud. When it cameto rest over a place, there the priests would set down the ark.Behind them followed Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun. After them camethe Gershonites and the Merarites, carrying the bundled tabernacle,which they set up around the ark when the people made camp. Reuben,Simeon, and Gad took their places. Then came the Kohathites, whocarried the furnishings and vessels for the tabernacle. Next followedJoseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) and Benjamin. Finally, as a rearguard,came Dan, accompanied by Asher and Naphtali (Num. 10:11–33).
Oncetheir sojourn in the wilderness was over, the Israelites began toconquer the land of Canaan. Joshua allotted portions of land to eachtribe (Josh. 13–21). The descendants of Joseph constituted twotribes, Manasseh and Ephraim. Each of those two received aninheritance; thus, Joseph can be said to have received a doubleportion as though firstborn. The Jordan River formed a natural borderdown the middle of the land. To its east were parts of Manasseh, Gad,and Reuben. The other tribes were to the west. The southernmost tribewas Judah. Within Judah was Simeon, which over time was absorbed intoJudah. Levi had no land for an inheritance, since Yahweh was Levi’sinheritance—fulfilling Jacob’s prophecy of Levi andSimeon being scattered throughout Israel. Immediately north of Judahwere Dan and Benjamin. The remaining tribes were more northern still.So that they would not forget Yahweh, the tribes across the Jordanbuilt an alternative altar, not for sacrifice but rather as areminder of the true and living God (Josh. 22).
Judges
Thehistory of the conquest underscores the fact that the tribes failedto drive out the inhabitants of the land completely. Many citiesremained centers for non-Israelite culture and religion. “WhenJoshua had grown old, the Lord said to him, ‘You are now veryold, and there are still very large areas of land to be taken over’”(Josh. 13:1). Judges 1 lists many peoples that continued to livealongside the Israelites.
Someof these peoples became incorporated into the mix of tribes. Rahaband her family from Jericho became integrated into the tribe of Judah(Josh. 2–6). The Gibeonites were a Canaanite people group whowere incorporated into Israel (Josh. 9). Ruth the Moabite marriedinto Judah (Ruth 4). Uriah the Hittite is an example of a Canaanitewho was fully naturalized, to the extent that he kept himselfceremonially pure and fought in God’s holy wars for Israel(2Sam. 11:11).
Thebook of Judges records the relative success or failure of each tribeto subdue and settle its own territory, and Judah consistently standsout as superior in this respect. Judges 1:2 puts Judah first. Judahprovided leadership and support to Simeon, helping it to fulfill itsown calling (1:17). After describing Judah’s success, Judg. 1delineates the other tribes’ failures.
Twostories at the end of Judges illustrate the character of Judah inthis period. Whenever Bethlehem and the other cities of Judah are thesetting, sojourners and others are treated hospitably, have no fears,and prosper. This is true also of the book of Ruth. But when folktravel elsewhere—to Moab or north to Ephraim or Benjamin—theymeet only trouble. Ephraim provided no protection to Micah when thelawless Danites overran his house (Judg. 18). Moab brought onlyfamine, barrenness, and death (Ruth 1).
Butthe worst case of all is the Benjamite city of Gibeah (Judg. 19–20).There, the sin of Sodom was repeated as men surrounded the host’shouse and demanded the sojourner. All Israel took up arms to destroythe wicked city and to punish the wicked tribe. As in the first twoverses of Judges, God appointed Judah to the leadership position(Judg. 20:18). Judah then did to Benjamin what God had done to Sodom,almost wiping out the tribe.
UnitedKingdom
Nevertheless,when the tribes came together and demanded a king, the first kingwhom God gave them, Saul, was from the tribe of Benjamin (1Sam.9:17). Benjamin was situated midway between Judah of the south andthe northern tribes. Saul was successful in leading the army ofIsrael, and for a time he enjoyed God’s blessing. But in theend, God rejected him and sent Samuel the prophet to anoint aBethlehemite, David, to become the next king. However, upon Saul’sdeath, his son Ish-Bosheth (Ishbaal) claimed the throne (2Sam.2:8–9), around 1011 BC.
Therefollowed a bitter civil war between the house of Saul, backed by thenorthern tribes, and the house of David, backed by Judah. After sevenyears, David had grown stronger and Ish-Bosheth weaker, until atHebron David was finally acknowledged as king of all Israel (2Sam.5:3). David’s throne would last for centuries, until thedestruction of Jerusalem. In the NT, David’s greater son Jesusinherited the throne. Thus, Jacob’s prophecy that the tribe ofJudah would hold the scepter was fulfilled.
Thenorthern tribes did not forget that they had once fought againstDavid. David was caught in a scandal when his troops were in battle,and this may have further lessened their loyalty to him (2Sam.12). When his son Absalom rebelled and proclaimed himself king, thenorthern tribes once more allied themselves against David, andanother civil war ensued. Although David won back his throne, thedissatisfaction of the northern tribes with the house of Davidcontinued (2Sam. 15–19).
AfterDavid died, Solomon inherited his throne (971 BC). Throughout hisreign, Solomon placed burdens on the tribes. He divided his kingdominto administrative districts that did not exactly correspond to thetribal territories. Dan and Zebulun were folded into otherterritories, and Asher seemed to have been ceded to Phoenicia(1Kings 4). Thus, Solomon’s kingdom systematicallyweakened tribal identities. He laid a levy upon the tribes of Israelof thousands of men to provide a labor force for his buildingprojects (1Kings 5). Solomon built and consecrated the temple,and Jerusalem thus became both the political and religious center ofthe nation. The price for this, however, was the exacerbateddiscontent of the northern tribes.
UponSolomon’s death, the tribes confronted his son Rehoboam with ademand to lighten Solomon’s “harsh labor and ...heavy yoke” (1Kings 12:4). Rehoboam foolishly replied,“My father made your yoke heavy; I will make it even heavier.My father scourged you with whips; I will scourge you with scorpions”(1Kings 12:14). The northern tribes finally abandoned David’shouse and thus became an independent political and religious state(931BC).
DividedKingdom
Throughoutthe period of the divided kingdom, tribal identities became lessimportant, for their loyalties were now dominated by the reigningking of either nation. The border between the northern and thesouthern kingdoms was more or less a straight line, from Joppa on thewest near the Mediterranean, to the upper tip of the Dead Sea. Thiscut through Dan, Ephraim, and Benjamin, leaving Simeon surrounded byJudah. Jerusalem was just south of the border. The first king of thenorth, Jeroboam, placed golden calves just north of the border, inBethel, and also at the northern end of his kingdom, in the city ofDan. These served as cultic alternatives to the temple in Jerusalemfor the duration of the northern kingdom. He also modified the law ofMoses to allow for non-Levitical priests and a different liturgicalcalendar. The northern kingdom was called “Israel” (itscapital was Samaria), and the southern kingdom was called “Judah”(1Kings 12:25–33).
Forhalf a century war ensued between the two kingdoms. The two formed analliance during the reigns of Ahab and his sons. King Ahab of Israelgave his daughter Athaliah to be married to King Jehoshaphat’sson Jehoram. Together the kingdoms fought against common enemies,such as Syria and Moab. They successfully turned back the superpowerof the day, Assyria.
UnderKing Ahab and his wife Jezebel, Baal worship was aggressivelypromoted at the expense of traditional Yahwism. During this periodElijah and Elisha called the people back to the God of theirancestors, but with little success (1Kings 17–2Kings13). A small group of faithful worshipers called the “sons ofthe prophets” did remain true to Yahweh, but most of Israelabandoned him. Hosea and Amos later also warned Israel, but theircalls went unheeded. Ahab and Jezebel’s daughter Athaliahmarried Jehoram, and both of them promoted Baal worship in Judah justas in Israel. Thus, the people of Yahweh had become the people ofBaal. Jezebel’s son Joram ruled Israel upon Ahab’s death,and Athaliah’s son Ahaziah ruled Judah upon Jehoram’sdeath.
Elishasecretly anointed one of Joram’s generals, Jehu, to bring theOmride dynasty to an end in Israel and to become the next king(2Kings 9). Jehu killed both kings and Jezebel, and hedestroyed all remnants of Ahab’s family. He also slaughteredthe worshipers of Baal: “so Jehu destroyed Baal worship inIsrael” (10:28). Upon the death of her son the king, Athaliahseized the throne and did to David’s house what Jehu had doneto Ahab’s: she had every family member killed.
Butone infant survived: Joash. He was secretly raised in the temple ofYahweh until he was seven years old. Then his supporters proclaimedhim king. Athaliah cried out, “Treason! Treason!”(2Kings 11:14), and the priest Jehoiada had her put to death.The place and objects of Baal worship were destroyed, endingstate-sponsored Baalism in Judah (11:17–18).
Fallof Both Kingdoms
Afterboth kingdoms’ period of infatuation with Baal (under thedomination of the Omrides), their history as nations continued totheir final fall. In Israel, the people never gave up Jeroboam’sperversion of the law of Moses. In Judah, kings varied widely intheir regard for the law of Moses; sometimes they were faithful,sometimes very unfaithful. Meanwhile, Assyria was a constant threat.During the reign of the good king Hezekiah, Judah was overrun by theforces of the Assyrian king Sennacherib. God miraculously deliveredJerusalem (2Kings 18). However, there was no such deliverancefor Israel. Samaria was besieged for three years and finally taken(722 BC). Most of the population was deported (17:5–18). Otherpeople groups were transplanted there who learned the law of Mosesand feared Yahweh along with their own gods (17:24–41).
Atthis point in their history, only Judah remained as a politicalentity; the northern tribes of Israel were lost. After the faithfulking Hezekiah, Judah’s next significant king was Manasseh. Heis described in 2Kings as the king most offensive to God. Tocategorize him, it was not enough to compare him unfavorably withDavid (see 2Kings 14:3) or to equate him with Ahab and Jezebel(see 8:18). Rather, Manasseh was compared to the pagan nations thatJoshua had driven out of the land, which were destroyed because oftheir wickedness. Manasseh was the last straw. Because of hiscomplete abandonment to idolatry, God determined to make an end ofJerusalem (21:11–15).
Yetstill the judgment was delayed. Two years after Manasseh’sdeath, Josiah reigned on the throne of David, and early in his careerthe Book of the Law was rediscovered in the temple. Josiah called fornational repentance, and for a time Judah got rid of its idols andreturned to God (2Kings 23). But this repentance was relativelyshort-lived.
Josiahwas the last good king of Judah. God sent Judah prophets such asJeremiah, but they went unheeded. In the end, God sent KingNebuchadnezzar of Babylon up against his own beloved city, Jerusalem.Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed, many of its people killed,and most of those who were left carried into exile to Babylon.
Exileand Restoration
Thefall of Jerusalem in 586 BC essentially ended the existence of thetribes as independent political entities. For the remainder of theirhistory they were, almost without exception, under the heel of greatforeign powers. At this point, they were called “Jews.”Nebuchadnezzar conscripted some of the younger men to serve in hiscourt (Dan. 1). The deportees remained in Babylon until its empirefell to the Medes and the Persians under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC.
Cyrusissued a decree at that time allowing the Jews to return to theirancestral land and rebuild the temple of Yahweh. They began tomigrate back to the land of promise and began their efforts torebuild the temple and the city of Jerusalem. These efforts continuedunder a succession of Persian kings. Although the Jews were home andable once again to worship God in the way he had specified in thelaw, Nehemiah lamented that they were little more than slaves, sincethey were subject to Persia (Neh. 9:36). Gone was the dynasty ofDavid, gone were most of the tribes, and gone was the greatness ofdays past. The sins of their fathers had brought them to this sadsituation.
Inthe return to the land, the genealogies of the returnees were veryimportant. These preserved family and tribal identities so that theirlineages would not be lost. The books that originated in therestoration period preserve these lists (see 1Chron. 1–9).
Persiaand the entire ancient world eventually were conquered by Alexanderthe Great. His successors divided the land after his death; twogenerals controlled Syria to the north and Egypt to the south ofPalestine. They constantly squabbled over their borders, whichincluded Palestine. Finally, AntiochusIV Epiphanes (r.175–164BC), king of Syria, decided to turn Jerusalem into a Greek city. Hebrought great pressure on the Jews to abandon their faith. Jews foundwith a copy of the law were killed, and circumcision of infants wasforbidden. He ransacked the temple and placed an idol in it. SomeJews abandoned their faith, but others resisted. Finally, Antiochusdied, and the Jews for a short time enjoyed independence. Over time,the Roman Empire engulfed Palestine. Herod the Great ruled as king ofthe Jews for Rome in the years 37–4 BC. Upon Herod’sdeath, his kingdom was divided among his sons.
NewTestament
TheJews in Judea in Jesus’ day had learned to find their national,ethnic, and cultural identity in the law of Moses. They dutifullyfollowed the purity laws, especially in keeping the Sabbath. Theirreligion was centered on the temple, and they kept Passover and theother prescribed obligations. Although the one remaining tribe,Judah, no longer could boast of a king on the throne of David or evenindependence, it was a nation whose people thought of themselves asYahweh’s people. By Jesus’ time, they anticipated that adescendant of David, a Messiah, would arise to restore the lostkingdom of David.
Althoughthe northern tribes were lost, there was some limited continuingawareness of tribal identity in this period. The book of Esther’sMordecai is from the tribe of Benjamin, and there are a number ofreferences to Benjamin in the intertestamental literature (e.g.,2Macc. 3:4). Anna the prophetess was from the tribe of Asher(Luke 2:36). Paul knew himself to be from the tribe of Benjamin (Rom.11:1; Phil. 3:5). He used his knowledge of this fact to help bolsterhis argument that he was truly a Jew. The Levites also survived theexile, and the priestly caste continued. The kingly and priestlytribes remained, with a few others.
Jesusis presented in Matt. 1 as a direct descendant of David through theline of kings. He is the promised Messiah (John 1:41), the “Lionof the tribe of Judah” (Rev. 5:5). Jesus promised his twelvedisciples that some day they would rule over the tribes of Israel(Matt. 19:28). In Christ, the definition of the tribes of Israel hadchanged. Gentiles were now grafted onto the olive tree of Israel(Rom. 11:17). Revelation 7:4–10 records the number from eachtribe who bear the seal of the Lamb. After hearing this, John turnedand saw them: they were revealed to be a vast company of the redeemedfrom every tribe on earth. Thus, the church had spiritually becomethe twelve tribes of Israel.
InAD 70 the temple was destroyed. Soon afterward, Israel was scattered,not to be a nation again in the promised land until 1948.
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1. A Maverick Son
Illustration
Larry Powell
Absalom was born in Hebron. His first recorded experience is the pathetic story of the rape of his sister, Tamar. Later, during a feast he masterminded the slaying of Amnon after which he escaped to the home of his grandfather at Geshur where he remained for three years. Absalom approached Joab to intercede for him with David in an effort to be reinstated in the royal family. Joab refused twice. Absalom then proceeded to set fire to Joab’s barley fields, forcing him to appear before David in order to escape the wrath of Absalom. In time, Absalom set about to undermine the people’s confidence in David by exaggerating the evils of the king’s court and presenting himself as the champion of the people. At the end of four years, confidence in David was sufficiently weakened and Absalom made bold to announce that at an appointed hour he would overthrow the throne of his father by force. David had no other recourse but to flee from Jerusalem. Eventually, the forces of father and son were to come up against each other in the forest of Ephraim, and the seasoned troops of David, under the leadership of Joab, Abishai, and Ittai the Hittite, utterly routed the forces of Absalom. As Absalom fled the battle upon his mule, his long hair became entangled in the thick branches of an oak tree, leaving him dangling helplessly in midair. Joab discovered him and slew him forthwith. Upon hearing the news, David cried out in one of the most pitiful laments in all the Scriptures: "O my son Absalom, my son Absalom! Would that I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!" (2 Samuel 18:33).
There is a love which transcends all circ*mstances. It is not always within the scope of human rationality. The love of a parent for a child is a supreme reflection of such love. A parent may repeatedly scold a child for being irresponsible, lazy, undependable, and belligerent, but pity the poor person who dares to point out that child’s shortcomings in front of that child’s parents. Love does not always operate within the limits of rationality.
The tragic story of David and his maverick son is favorably compared to the Gospel in miniature. In it are shades of Adam’s folly, Israel’s rebellion against God, the Prodigal Son, and many other instances of flagrant misconduct. But in them all, the Bible’s theme of transcending love emerges most clearly. Not even the murder of God’s own son could violate the most profound, powerful force in all the universe - love. God, like David, grieves because of love. It was Luther who remarked, "If I was God and the world treated me the way it treats God, I would dash the wretched thing to pieces." A rational conclusion. However, there is a love which operates beyond rationality and we are thankful to God for it.
2. Courage in the Midst of Fear
Illustration
Kristin Borsgard Wee
We lovestories of genuine heroes. People whoperformremarkable acts of courage. Their stories thrilling, but I admit they are a bitunsettling. How do people do those things? In a real crisis, what is to keep me from running in the other direction? The best stories are the ones that talk about courage in the midst of fear. People who are scared to death and still do what needs to be done.
One such person was Marshall Ney, a captain in Napoleon's army. Napoleon often referred to Marshall Ney as the bravest man he had ever known. Yet, the captain's knees trembled so badly one morning before a battle that he had trouble getting on his horse. When he was finally in the saddle, he looked at his knees and said with disgust, "Shake away, knees. You would shake worse than that if you knew where I am going to take you." Now that's a man I can really like!
3. The Power of Love
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
Tears glistened in the eyes of the Salvation Army officer Shaw as he looked at the three men before him. Shaw was a medical missionary who had just arrived in India, and the Army was taking over this particular leper colony. These three men had manacles and fetters binding their hands and feet, cutting their diseased flesh. Captain Shaw turned to the guard and said, "Please unfasten the chains."
"It isn't safe," the guard replied, "these men are dangerous criminals as well as lepers!"
"I'll be responsible. They're suffering enough," Captain Shaw said, as he put out his hand and took the keys, then knelt and tenderly removed the shackles and treated their bleeding ankles and wrists.
About two weeks later Captain Shaw had his first misgivings about freeing these criminals; he had to make an overnight trip and dreaded leaving his wife and child alone. His wife insisted that she wasn't afraid with God being there. The next morning when she went to the front door, she was startled to see the three criminals lying on her steps. One explained, "We know the Doctor, go. We stay here all night, so no harm come to you." That's how these dangerous men responded to an act of love. Christ came to set fettered people free.
4. Love Never Gives Up
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
A New England girl had just become engaged when the Civil War broke out. Her fiancé was called into the army, so their wedding had to be postponed. The young soldier managed to get through most of the conflict without injury, but at the Battle of the Wilderness he was severely wounded. His bride-to-be, not knowing of his condition, read and reread his letters, counting the days until he would return. Suddenly the letters stopped coming. Finally she received one, but it was written in an unfamiliar handwriting. It read, "There has been another terrible battle. It is very difficult for me to tell you this, but I have lost both my arms. I cannot write myself. So a friend is writing this letter for me. While you are as dear to me as ever, I feel I should release you from the obligation of our engagement."
The letter was never answered. Instead, the young woman took the next train and went directly to the place her loved one was being cared for. On arrival she found a sympathetic captain who gave her directions to her soldier's cot. Tearfully, she searched for him. The moment she saw the young man, she threw her arms around his neck and kissed him. "I will never give you up!" she cried. "These hands of mine will help you. I will take care of you."
5. Taking a Stand
Illustration
Richard Carl Hoefler
The story is told that when Sherman marched to the sea, a little old lady refused to leave her home in rural Georgia. She stood on the front porch and saw the homes and the fields of her neighbors burning across the valley. As Sherman’s army came closer and finally started down the road to her farm, she was unable to stand by and do nothing. She took her broom and stood defiantly in the middle of the road.
The marching soldiers saw her and came to a halt. The captain shouted, “Old lady, do you expect to win the war with a broom?”
“No,” came the quick reply, “butI’ll show the world which side I’m on.”
6. A Map of the City
Illustration
Gary Smalley & John Trent, Ph.D.
Something took place in the fall of 1944 that can explain a major reason many children are facing a losing battle in today's families. It was late October when an officer commanding a platoon of American soldiers received a call from headquarters. Over the radio, this captain learned his unit was being ordered to recapture a small French city from the Nazis and he learned something else from headquarters as well. For weeks, French resistance fighters had risked their lives to gather information about the German fortifications in that city, and they had smuggled this information out to the Allies.
The French Underground's efforts had provided the Americans with something worth its weight in gold: a detailed map of the city. It wasn't just a map with the names of major streets and landmarks; it showed specific details of the enemy's defensive positions. Indeed, the map even identified shops and buildings where German soldiers bunked or where a machine-gun nest or a sniper had been stationed. Block by block, the Frenchmen gave an accounting of the German units and the gun emplacements they manned. For a captain who was already concerned about mounting casualty lists, receiving such information was an answer to prayer. Although the outcome of the war wouldn't depend on this one skirmish, to him it meant that he wouldn't have to write as many letters to his men's parents or wives telling them their loved one had been cut down in battle.
Before the soldiers moved out to take their objective, the Captain gave each man a chance to study the map. And wanting to make sure his men read it carefully, he hurriedly gave them a test covering the major landmarks and enemy strongholds. Just before his platoon moved out, the officer graded the test, and with minor exceptions every man earned a perfect score. As a direct result of having that map to follow, the men captured the city with little loss of American lives.
Nearly thirty years after this military operation took place, an army researcher heard the story and decided to base a study on it. The project began in France, where instead of a platoon of soldiers, he arranged for a group of American tourists to help him with his research. For several hours, the men and women were allowed to study the same map the soldiers had, and then they were given the same test. You can guess the results. Most of the tourists failed miserably. The reason for the difference between these two groups was obvious motivation. Knowing their lives were on the line, the soldiers were highly motivated to learn every detail of the map. For the tourists, being in a research study provided some motivation. But most of them had nothing to lose but a little ride if they failed the test.
7. SOLDIER
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
1 Samuel 4:10 - "So the Philistines fought, and Israel was defeated, and they fled, every man to his home; and there was a very great slaughter, for there fell of Israel thirty thousand foot soldiers."
Acts 12:18 - "Now when day came, there was no small stir among the soldiers over what had become of Peter."
Before Saul there was no regular Israelite army, but, when a need arose, the tribes would gather together, each tribe with its own banner, and rally to the cause. And when the situation had been resolved, they would go back to their own homes. But with the establishment of the monarchy, a standing army became a necessity.
Saul started this army by choosing permanent warriors to serve him, and David later increased this force and began to pay the soldiers wages. Before this time, soldiers had lived off the land or were provided for by their families. Saul had also started the practice of recruiting mercenaries, from any tribe or people. Any likely looking man was a probable choice. Again, David followed in Saul’s footsteps and added more and more mercenaries to his army.
The Jewish soldiers were taught that they were engaged in a holy war and often the concept of "herem" - complete destruction of the enemy and his possessions - was required. During the Maccabean wars, charms were carried for protection by Jewish soldiers.
After a victory, unless it was a holy war with the herem imposed, the soldiers divided the booty, with special shares going to the officers. This was the most ancient of all customs connected with war. This is one of the more obvious advantages to being an officer!
Men from twenty to fifty were eligible to serve in the army, whose basic corps was the infantry. The military tactics employed included sieges, ambushes, raids, and surprise night attacks. In the actual battle, the first line of defense was a line of shield-bearing spearsmen. Behind this front line were archers who, besides carrying bows and arrows, carried a sword and buckler. Most battles resulted in hand-to-hand fighting. On campaign, the soldiers lived in camps and slept in tents.
Today’s soldier has more sophisticated weapons at his disposal, and his mode of transportation and communication are infinitely better, but in the ultimate moment, he is one with his soldier brothers of the past - the soldier faces death at every moment! And he must be prepared to accept that fact.
8. Where Credit Is Due
Illustration
Napoleon's genius had been attributed to many things, but, above all, he was a superb natural leader of men. Like any wise leader he was aware that his own success would have been nothing had his men not been willing, even eager, to follow him. Obviously he could not know and personally inspire every man in his vast army, therefore he devised a simple technique for circumventing this difficulty. Before visiting a regiment he would call the colonel aside and ask for the name of a soldier who had served well in previous campaigns, but who had not been given the credit he deserved. The colonel would indicate such a man. Napoleon would then learn everything about him, where he was born, the names of his family, his exploits in battle, etc. Later, upon passing this man while reviewing the troops, and at a signal from the colonel, Napoleon would stop, single out the man, greet him warmly, ask about his family, compliment him on his bravery and loyalty, reminisce about old campaigns, then pin a medal on the grateful soldier. The gesture worked. After the review, the other soldiers would remark, "You see, he knows us he remembers. He knows our families. He knows we have served."
9. NEEDED: A GOOD WORD!
Illustration
John H. Krahn
On November 18, 1861, the Lord began to speak a beautiful word of hope to a fractured American society as a woman by the name of Julia Ward Howe slept fitfully while troops marched in the streets below. As she lay waiting for the dawn, the lines of a beautiful poem began to fashion themselves in her thoughts. The memory of some of the greatest lines in the Old Testament came to her mind, mingled with the faces of soldiers seated around campfires and battle trumpets recently heard. The cost of the Civil War had not been counted; the horror of the war had not been foreseen. It had been entered upon in excitement, almost a pleasurable fervor. And now the pleasurable fervor had given way to determination and the solemn acceptance of sacrifice.
She got out of bed and began to write, "Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord" ... and minutes later a beautiful gospel message flowed from the pen, "In the beauty of the lilies, Christ was born across the sea. With a glory in his bosom that transfigures you and me; as he died to make men holy let us live to make men free, While God is marching on."
It was over a year before her poem was discovered and set to a familiar tune that the soldiers knew. Very quickly it was being sung in many Army regiments. On one occasion a Chaplain McCabe sang it at a mass meeting in Washington. The audience joined in on the chorus. "Glory! glory, hallelujah! Glory! glory, hallelujah! Glory! glory, hallelujah! His truth is marching on." The effect was magical as people wept and sang together ... and above the applause was heard the voice of Abraham Lincoln, exclaiming, while the tears unashamedly rolled down his cheeks, "Sing it again."
Julia Ward Howe was a beautiful Christian lady who permitted God to use her to present his gospel of hope to her troubled world.
Today God has a good word for our nation’s problems. Permit him to speak it through you.
10. One By One
Illustration
In 480 B.C. the outmanned army of Sparta's King Leonidas held off the Persian troops of Xerxes by fighting them one at a time as they came through a narrow mountain pass. Commenting on this strategy, C.H. Sprugeon said, "Suppose Leonidas and his handful of men had gone out into the wide-open plain and attacked the Persians why, they would have died at once, even though they might have fought like lions."
Spurgeon continued by saying that Christians stand in the narrow pass of today. If they choose to battle every difficulty at once, they're sure to suffer defeat. But if they trust God and take their troubles one by one, they will find that their strength is sufficient.
11. A Commitment to "Words of Life"
Illustration
Brett Blair
Fifty-six men signed the Declaration of Independence. Their conviction resulted in untold sufferings for themselves and their families. Of the 56 men, five were captured by the British and tortured before they died. Twelve had their homes ransacked and burned. Two lost their sons in the Revolutionary Army. Another had two sons captured. Nine of the fifty-six fought and died from wounds or hardships of the war. Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw his ships sunk by the British navy. He sold his home and properties to pay his debts and died in poverty. At the battle of Yorktown, the British General Cornwallis had taken over Thomas Nelson's home for his headquarters. Nelson quietly ordered General George Washington to open fire on his own home. The home was destroyed and Nelson died bankrupt. John Hart was driven from his wife's bedside as she was dying. Their thirteen children fled for their lives. His fields and mill were destroyed. For over a year, he lived in forest and caves, returning home only to find his wife dead and his children vanished. A few weeks later, he died from exhaustion.
This is the story of the 56 men who signed the Declaration of Independence. It is a story of the high price of commitment. It also the story of Jesus' disciples who paid the high price of commitment. History tells us that they all died because of their witness to Christ. And so you all are free to go. You may leave right now, but let me ask you: To whom shall you go? He has the words of life.
12. The One Who Intercedes
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
There was a soldier in the Union army, a young man who had lost his older brother and his father in the war. He went to Washington, D.C., to see President Lincoln to ask for an exemption from military service so he could go back and help his sister and mother with the spring planting on the farm. When he arrived in Washington, after having received a furlough from the military to go and plead his case, he went to the White House, approached the doors, and asked to see the president. However, he was told, "You can't see the president! Don't you know there's a war on? The president's a very busy man. Now go away, son! Get back out there and fight the Rebs like you're supposed to." So he left, very disheartened, and was sitting on a little park bench not far from the White House when a little boy came up to him. The lad said, "Soldier, you look unhappy. What's wrong?" The soldier looked at this young boy and began to spill his heart out to this young lad about his situation, about his father and his brother having died in the war, and how he was the only male left in the family and was needed desperately back at the farm for the spring planting.
The little boy took the soldier by the hand and led him around to the back of the White House. They went through the back door, past the guards, past all the generals and the high ranking government officials until they got to the president's office itself. The little boy didn't even knock on the door but just opened it and walked in. There was President Lincoln with his secretary of state, looking over battle plans on the desk. President Lincoln looked up and said, "What can I do for you, Todd?"
And Todd said, "Daddy, this soldier needs to talk to you." And right then and there the soldier had a chance to plead his case to President Lincoln, and he was exempted from military service due to the hardship he was under.
Such is the case with our ascended Lord. We have access to the Father through the Son. It is the Son who brings us to the Father's throne and says, "Daddy, here is someone who wants to talk to You."
13. Saddam Hussein's Mistake
Illustration
Donald Dotterer
In the scripture lesson, Jesus makes a point about preparedness with an illustration. He asks his audience, "What king, preparing to go to battle against another king, would not first sit down and consider whether or not his army of 10,000 men would be able to fight successfully against 20,000?"
This is the mistake that Saddam Hussein made against the Coalition of Nations, which opposed his invasion of Kuwait. Hussein was crushed, because he did not carefully count the cost of his aggression.
14. The Lottery Substitute
Illustration
During the war between Britain and France, men were conscripted into the French army by a kind of lottery system. When someone's name was drawn, he had to go off to battle. There was one exception to this, however. A person could be exempt if another was willing to take his place. On one occasion the authorities came to a certain man and told him he was among those who had been chosen. He refused to go, saying, "I was shot 2 years ago." At first they questioned his sanity, but he insisted that this indeed was the case. He claimed that the military records would show that he had been conscripted 2 years previously and that he had been killed in action. "How can that be?" they questioned. "You are alive now!" He explained that when his name came up, a close friend said to him, "You have a large family, but I am not married and nobody is dependent upon me. I'll take your name and address and go in your place." And that is indeed what the record showed. This rather unusual case was referred to Napoleon Bonaparte, who decided that the country had no legal claim on that man. He was free. He had died in the person of another!
This principle of substitution is also at the heart of the gospel. The Savior willingly took our place, not because He had any less to lose than we, but because of His infinite love. He died in our stead and paid the penalty for our sin. The law, which demands the ultimate punishment, has no claim on us, for we died 1900 years ago in the person of Christ. His finished work is the basis of our salvation. We depend on Him our Substitute!
15. What Happens to Birds in the Winter?
Illustration
Staff
Fun fact. Until 1822, we had absolutely no idea what happened to birds in the winter. All we knew were there were birds in the summer and no birds in the winter. And people developed a lot of crazy theories about what would happen to the birds every fall. Some people said they would dive into lakes and hibernate under the ice. Some people thought they would burrow into the ground to hibernate while other people said the birds would transition themselves into other animals, like mice and rabbits in the winter, and then would transition themselves back into birds in the spring.
A Harvard educator name Charles Morton did propose migration in 1694, but he believed birds migrated to the moon and back. Then in 1822 a German Hunter was out looking for dinner near the town of Klutz when he shot and killed a white stork. But when he picked up the bird he found it already had a 30-inch spear in its neck. Finding this interesting, the hunter brought his kill to the nearby University of Rostock, where scientists found the iron-tipped wood spear to be of Central African origin. This proved without a doubt the stork had migrated between Europe and Africa and led scientists down the right path to discover that birds migrate to warmer climates in the winter.
16. I Died on the Battlefield
Illustration
Adrian Dieleman
Dwight L. Moody told of the young man who did not want to serve in Napoleon Bonaparte's army. When he was drafted, a friend volunteered to go in his place. The substitution was made, and some time later the surrogate was killed in battle.
However, the same young man was, through a clerical error, drafted again. "You can't take me" he told the startled officers. "I'm dead. I died on the battlefield."
They argued that they could see him standing right in front of them, but he insisted they look on the roll to find the record of his death. Sure enough, there on the roll was the man's name, with another name written beside it.
The case finally went to the emperor himself. After examining the evidence, Napoleon said, "Through a surrogate, this man has not only fought, but has died in his country's service. No man can die more than once, therefore the law has no claim on him."
Two thousand years ago, Jesus went to the cross to bear the penalty that rightly belongs to us. He died in our place. And through Him, our names are written in the book with His name written beside ours.
17. HARNESS MAKER
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Jeremiah 46:4 - "Harness the horses; mount, O horsem*n! Take your stations with your helmets, polish your spears, put on your coats of mail!"
Today the harness maker doesn’t have to worry about making his harnesses sturdy enough to take a rider into battle. (Although I confess complete ignorance as to the making of harnesses for the remaining cavalry units in our army!) But, in the far larger scene today, the harness maker is primarily involved in making his products for the farms and riding stables. Granted that most of our farmers are totally mechanized, still horses are to be found on their lands, and certainly there is a large field for skilled harness makers in supplying the myriads of riding academies and dude ranches and such that dot our landscapes.
But today’s harness makers have mechanical helps to enable them to work with the tough leather. Not so the harness maker of biblical times. All he had available were knives, awls, needles, and thread. And, if you’ve ever tried to work with leather, you can imagine how difficult it would be without some power-driven equipment.
To make harnesses, the worker had to cut and shape the leather and fit and stitch the various parts of the harness together. In many cases, this was done by cutting the leather into strips and sewing them together by hand, and then starting the shaping process.
Nor was this the extent of his duties. He was also called on to repair harnesses, particularly after a battle. And, perhaps the most disagreeable of his jobs, he had to clean and dress the harnesses.
However, in spite of its advantages, it was a manly and honorable profession, and, in New Testament times, we find that Rome had a street of the harness makers. And that always seems to put a seal of approval on any occupation.
18. Benedict Arnold's Unthinkable Act
Illustration
At age 14 he ran away from home and fought in the French and Indian War. At the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, he joined the American army as a colonel and in 1775 shared a command with Ethan Allen in the capture of Ticonderoga. Later he led 1000 men into Canada where he fought in the battle of Quebec. His courage in battle won him a promotion to brigadier general. But something went wrong. Thoughts of compromise ate away at his patriotic zeal. Soon the unthinkable happened. He offered his services to the British, and in 1780 devised a plan to surrender West Point to British control. Today, instead of being remembered as a national hero, Benedict Arnold is synonymous with "traitor."
19. Character and Competence
Illustration
General H. Norman Schwarzkopt
I've met a lot of leaders in the Army who were very competent but they didn't have character. And for every job they did well, they sought reward in the form of promotions, in the form of awards and decorations, in the form of getting ahead at the expense of someone else, in the form of another piece of paper that awarded them another degree a sure road to the top.
You see, these were competent people, but they lacked character. I've also met a lot of leaders who had superb character but who lacked competence. They weren't willing to pay the price of leadership, to go the extra mile because that's what it took to be a great leader.
And that's sort of what it's all about. To lead in the 21st century to take soldiers, sailors, airmen into battle you will be required to have both character and competence.
20. You Can't Buy Forgiveness
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
A little boy came to the Washington Monument and noticed a guard standing by it. The little boy looked up at the guard and said, "I want to buy it." The guard stooped down and says, "How much do you have?" The boy reached into his pocket and pulled out a quarter. The guard said, "That's not enough." The boy replied, "I thought you would say that." So he pulled out nine cents more. The guard looked down at the boy and said, "You need to understand three things. First, thirty-four cents is not enough. In fact, $34 million is not enough to buy the Washington Monument. Second, the Washington Monument is not for sale. And third, if you are an American citizen, the Washington Monument already belongs to you."
We need to understand three things about forgiveness. First, we cannot earn it. Second, it is not for sale. And third, if we accept Christ, we already have it.
21. An Urgent Message
Illustration
During the Revolutionary War, a loyalist spy appeared at the headquarters of Hessian commander Colonel Johann Rall, carrying an urgent message. General George Washington and his Continental army had secretly crossed the Delaware River that morning and were advancing on Trenton, New Jersey where the Hessians were encamped. The spy was denied an audience with the commander and instead wrote his message on a piece of paper. A porter took the note to the Hessian colonel, but because Rall was involved in a poker game he stuffed the unread note into his pocket. When the guards at the Hessian camp began firing their muskets in a futile attempt to stop Washington's army, Rall was still playing cards.
Without time to organize, the Hessian army was captured. The battle occurred the day after Christmas, 1776, giving the colonists a late present their first major victory of the war.
22. IRONSMITH
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Isaiah 44:12 - "The ironsmith fashions it and works it over the coals; he shapes it with hammers, and forges it with his strong arm; he becomes hungry and his strength fails, he drinks no water and is faint."
Tubal-cain, of the race of Cain, is described as "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron" (Genesis 4:22). It used to be thought that the use if iron was very late, but modern archaeology has found that there was a knowledge of iron as early as the third millenium B.C. Remains of an iron blade dating @2700 B.C. have been found at a site near Baghdad. A small steel ax from Ur and other early objects of iron have also been found. The fact that not more iron objects of an early period have been found is undoubtedly due to the fact that iron oxidized quickly.
The Taurus Mountains, the chief iron supply of Asia Minor, were for many years controlled by the Hittites. Iron began to come into general use in Palestine in the 13th century B.C. The Israelites in the period of the judges and the early monarchy envied and feared the iron furnaces of the Philistines, which gave the latter a tremendous superiority in arms. It was both inconvenient and expensive for the Israelites to go to Philistia to get iron tools made or repaired.
Lack of iron for farming implements, nails, and weapons for war kept the Isrealites comparatively poor during the period of the judges. They could not drive the Canaanites out of the plains because the latter had chariots and weapons of iron. Even in the time of Saul, his army had no swords or spears for battle, he and Jonathan alone possessing them. When the power of the Philistines was broken by Saul and David, the iron-smelting formula became public property, and the metal came to be widely used in Isreal.
Iron ore was brought in by Tyrian leaders, probably from Spain, although it was also found in the Lebanon range, and probably Egypt. The Jews probably learned the art of working in iron from the Phoenicians. The ore was reduced in furnaces built in stone; charcoal was used in them, and the fire was blown by bellows. Wrought iron, cast iron, and steel were made.
Iron was used in Bible times much as it is used today. It was used for axes and other implements, vessels, threshing instruments, harrows, fetters, armor, chariots, nails, weights, tools, prison bars; whatever men needed that could be reasonably made from iron. There is a description of a smith at work in Ecclesiasticus 38:28. We have added many more items today that we made use of in our daily lives, but the same ones that the ancients made are still used in most parts of the world.
23. Renouncing Everything
Illustration
Steven P. Loy
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn served in the Russian army during World War II. He was decorated for bravery and rose to the rank of captain. In 1945, while serving on the German front, he was arrested for criticizing Stalin in letters to a friend and was sentenced to eight years in a labor camp. After completing his prison sentence, Solzhenitsyn was exiled to Kazakhstan, but after Stalin's death his position improved, and his citizenship was restored in 1956. His first novels described how grim life could be in the labor-camp system. One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich was permitted publication in 1962 as a result of the personal intervention of Nikita Khrushchev. In subsequent years, however, he was considered to be a dangerous and hostile critic of the soviet system. He was again arrested and imprisoned. He was accused of treason, stripped of his citizenship, and forcibly deported to the West. His deportation in 1974 allowed him to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Literature, which he had been awarded four years earlier.
In his book The Gulag Archipelago, Solzhenitsyn documents the operation of the oppressive Soviet totalitarian system from 1918 to 1956 by using personal interviews and reminiscences from his time in the camps. He tells how prisoners were able to withstand abuse and interrogation even when they had done nothing wrong. This is a small section from the book.
How can you stand your ground when you are weak and sensitive to pain, when people you love are still alive, when you are unprepared? What do you need to make you stronger than the interrogator and the whole trap?
From the moment you go in prison you must put your cozy past firmly behind you. At the very threshold, you must say to yourself: "My life is over, a little early to be sure, but there's nothing to be done about it. I shall never return to freedom. I am condemned to die - now or a little later. But later on, in truth, it will be even harder, and so the sooner the better. I no longer have any property whatsoever. For me those I love have died, and for them I have died. From today on, my body is useless and alien to me. Only my spirit and my conscience remain precious and important to me."
Confronted by such a prisoner, the interrogator will tremble. Only the man who has renounced everything can win that victory.
24. Turning Point
Illustration
John R. Steward
When I was in college my professor and good friend Dr. James Kallas would speak of the resurrection of Christ as being similar to the turning point in a war. He would use the Battle of the Bulge in World War II as an example. In recent years you could point to the Gulf War against Iraq. I remember how so many people predicted that this would be a very bloody war. They would point out how large Iraq's army was and that we should be prepared for many casualties coming home injured or in body bags. People were genuinely concerned and it was somewhat uncertain just how things would work out. Then the war began with the fighter jets bombing Iraq. In only two or three days, the Americans had obtained air superiority. When air superiority was achieved, there was no longer any doubt as to who the victor would be in that war. However, it was not at that moment when the war was over or when the killing would stop. It was the turning point in the war when we knew for certain who the victor would be in the end.
That is how it is with the resurrection of Jesus Christ. His resurrection is the turning point in the battle with "sin, death, and the power of the devil." We now know that, in the end, the ultimate victory is ours because of the resurrection of Jesus. "
25. Til the Last Breath
Illustration
Major Sullivan Ballou of the Union Army wrote this letter to his wife Sarah. One week later, Major Ballou was killed at the first battle of Bull Run:
"I have no misgivings about or lack of confidence in the cause in which I am engaged and my courage does not falter. I know how American civilization leans upon the triumph of the government. I know how great a debt we owe to those who went before us through the suffering of the Revolution. And I am willing, perfectly willing, to lay down the joys of this life to help maintain this government and to help pay that debt.
"Sarah, my love for you is deathless. It seems to bind me with many cables that nothing but Omnipotence can break. And yet my love of country comes over me like a strong wind and bears me irresistibly with all those chains to the battlefield. The memory of all those blissful moments I have enjoyed with you come crowding over me, and I feel most grateful to God and you that I have enjoyed them for so long. And how hard it is for me to give them up and burn to ashes the future years, when God willing, we might have loved and lived together, and watched our boys grow up around us to honorable manhood. If I do not return my dear Sarah, never forget how much I loved you nor that when my last breath escapes me on the battlefield it will whimper your name."
26. Hidden Messages
Illustration
Staff
In 1994 graffiti from the 1800s was discovered by workers renovating the Washington Monument. The graffiti has quite a different tone from the graffitifound today on the sides of buildings and subway cars. It reads:"Whoever is the human instrument under God in the conversion of one soul, erects a monument to his own memory more lofty and enduing (sic) than this," reads the inscription which can now be viewed by visitors to the monument. It is signed BFB. No one knows who that is, or who left the small drawings and 19th century dates on other walls.
The markings in the lobby of the monument were covered over when it was decorated at the turn of the century. They were found when workers removed marble wainscoting as part of a year-long $500,000 renovation which was just completed.
27. The Battle Hymn
Illustration
In 1861, a prominent Bostonian woman and her husband were visiting Washington, D.C. shortly after the outbreak of the Civil War. They witnessed an impressive military review one day and were on their way back to their hotel with some friends in a carriage when their way was blocked by several columns of soldiers. To pass the time, Julia Ward Howe and her friends began to sing popular army songs, including "John Brown's Body." The soldiers cheered the singing, but one of her friends suggested to Mrs. Howe that the lyrics could be improved.
Early the next morning she arose in her hotel room and quickly scribbled out some new lyrics, inspired by her memory of the soldiers from the day before.
Her new words were published in the spring 1862 issue of Atlantic Monthly and the "Battle Hymn of the Republic" became the major war song of the Union forces. The opening words and the refrain are certainly familiar: "Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord...Glory, hallelujah! his truth is marching on." Perhaps the last verse is not quite as well known, which speaks of "a glory in his bosom that transfigures you and me...While God is marching on."
28. Silent Night
Illustration
James Kegel
The Army chaplain of the 106th Division was captured in the Battle of the Bulge in World War II. Along with many other Americans, he was herded on to a freight car and taken into the heart of Germany.
On the evening ofDecember 23rd, the men were in the railroad yard of a German city, when a devastating attack was made by the British Royal Air Force. Many of the American prisoners were killed as well as many Germans. The next night, Christmas Eve, the air raid was repeated. When the planes began to fly over, there was fear and alarm among the prisoners who were packed like sardines into these freight cars. The chaplain persuaded the German officer in charge to let him go up and down the line of the cars and talk to the men. As he passed by he said, "Boys, this is Christmas Eve and we are in a tough spot. But, if you have your Bibles, get them out and read the story of the birth of Jesus and you will know that He is with us even here. If you can't read because of the darkness, then let's sing."
Immediately there was a medley of response. Some sang revival songs and some sang hymns. Then a rich baritone struck up "Silent Night, Holy Night," and he was joined by others. Carload after carload joined in singing that beautiful Christmas carol. Then something marvelous happened. Other voices, German voices, began to sing the song in the original "Stille Nacht, Heilige Nacht." The German voices and American voices blended together in praise of Christ who came to bring all people together in peace.
29. Forty Martyrs for Christ
Illustration
Lieghton Ford
Many have heard the story about the forty martyrs of Sabaste. These forty soldiers, all Christians, were members of the famed Twelfth Legion of Rome's imperial army. One day their captain told them Emperor Licinius had sent out an edict that all soldiers were to offer sacrifice to the pagan gods. These Christians replied, "You can have our armor and even our bodies, but our hearts' allegiance belongs to Jesus Christ."
It was midwinter of A.D. 320, and the captain had them marched onto a nearby frozen lake. He stripped them of their clothes and said they would either die or renounce Christ. Throughout the night these men huddled together singing their song, "Forty martyrs for Christ." One by one the temperature took its toll and they fell to the ice.
At last there was only one man left. He lost courage and stumbled to the shore, where he renounced Christ. The officer of the guards had been watching all this. Unknown to the others, he had secretly come to believe in Christ. When he saw this last man break rank, he walked out onto the ice, threw off his clothes, and confessed that he also was a Christian. When the sun rose the next morning, there were forty bodies of soldiers who had fought to the death for Christ.
30. The Power of Fear
Illustration
John R. Steward
Four centuries ago there was an incident that can serve as an example of the power of fear. It was the occasion of the last Tatar invasion of Russia in the fall of 1462. The two armies faced each other on the banks of the Oka River, which is located about 200 miles east of Moscow. For several days they had been engaged in battle. When the Tatar army would attempt to cross the Oka River, they would be beaten back by the Russians. It was the Oka River that gave the inferior Russian army any chance of surviving. After several days it began to appear that the river would be all the Russians needed to be saved from the onslaught of the Tatars. But then something happened that frightened them greatly. A cold wave developed that blew down the Ural Mountains and caused the Oka River to begin to freeze. If the river were to freeze over completely, it would mean that the Tatars would be able to cross and the Russians would be destroyed.
As the night passed the Russian soldiers were sitting by their fires discussing the problem of the freezing water. They knew full well what would happen if the enemy were able to cross on the hardened ice. With the wind growing stronger their fears evolved as well and by midnight the entire Russian army left their encampment. They did not stop until they had reached Moscow.
In the morning when the Tatars awakened they soon realized that the Russians were no longer on the other side of the river. They couldn't believe what they were seeing. This only caused the soldiers and their officers to speculate as to what might be happening. They concluded that the Russians had probably crossed the river many miles to the east and that they would now attack from the rear. Now it was the Tatars who were in a panic. In less than two hours they left their tents and were in retreat. The Tatars did not stop running until they reached the Volga River.
These two armies allowed fear, which was based in their imaginations, to lead and guide them. Too many times we function in the same way. We were built for faith and not fear. Jesus promises that the Holy Spirit will empower us in all that we do. Jesus promises that he will give us his peace and then we will not need to be afraid.
Adapted by William Stidger, There Are Sermons in Stories (New York City: Abingdon-co*kesbury Press), p. 154. Used by permission.
31. Suffering for Independence
Illustration
Brett Blair
Fifty-six men signed the Declaration of Independence. Their conviction resulted in untold sufferings for themselves and their families. Of the 56 men, five were captured by the British and tortured before they died. Twelve had their homes ransacked and burned. Two lost their sons in the Revolutionary Army. Another had two sons captured. Nine of the fifty-six fought and died from wounds or hardships of the war. Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw his ships sunk by the British navy. He sold his home and properties to pay his debts and died in poverty.
At the battle of Yorktown, the British General Cornwallis had taken over Thomas Nelson's home for his headquarters. Nelson quietly ordered General George Washington to open fire on the Nelson home. The home was destroyed and Nelson died bankrupt. John Hart was driven from his wife's bedside as she was dying. Their thirteen children fled for their lives. His fields and mill were destroyed. For over a year, he lived in forests and caves, returning home only to find his wife dead and his children vanished. A few weeks later, he died from exhaustion.
Such were the sacrifices of the founding fathers. There are no movements that have shaped the world where sacrifice was not called upon. And of course in the church we have all our grace predicated on a sacrifice and it didn't stop at the cross. Jesus told his disciples that they too would need to take up the cross. And that's what they did:
- Matthew suffered martyrdom by being slain with a sword at a distant city of Ethiopia.
- Mark expired at Alexandria, after being cruelly dragged through the streets of that city.
- Luke was hanged upon an olive tree in the classic land of Greece.
- John was put in a cauldron of boiling oil, but escaped death in a miraculous manner, and was afterward banished to Patmos.
- Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downward.
- James, the Greater, was beheaded at Jerusalem.
- James, the Less, was thrown from a lofty pinnacle of the temple, and then beaten to death with a fuller's club.
- Bartholomew was flayed alive.
- Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached to his persecutors until he died.
- Thomas was run through the body with a lance at Coromandel in the East Indies.
- Jude was shot to death with arrows.
- Matthais was first stoned and then beheaded.
- Barnabas of the Gentiles was stoned to death at Salonica.
- Paul, after various tortures and persecutions, was at length beheaded at Rome by the Emperor Nero.
32. Parable of Cutting Tile
Illustration
The boy watched his father cutting an expensive furnace tile. "Let me try that," he said.
"No," said the father, "a wrong cut will ruin the expensive tile."
"Then I'll watch." He saw his father draw the line in black chalk, place the chisel carefully on the line and repeatedly tap his blows. First lightly, as he circled the tile slowly, and then heavier blows were made.
"It looks to me," said the boy, "like you are getting nowhere. You haven't begun to cut through."
"Watch," said the father. After a number of blows carefully repeated, the father gave one hard blow and the tile separated with a perfect cut.
"Why didn't you hit it that hard in the first place?" asked the boy.
"It would have ruined the tile and made it worthless," said the father. "All those earlier blows set the pattern for the final one."
There are many things in life that seem repetitious and sometimes worthless but they set the stage for the truly important decisions in life. The drinking habits of Gideon's army determined which ones were chosen for battle.
Our habits of regular worship, of daily cleanliness and friendly enthusiams, of genuine kindness may provide many seemingly unimportant experiences, but they lead along the pathway to true greatness. The development of the human soul in sincere faith and loving kindness is important all through life and the Heavenly Father knows our times of sorrow and our times of joy and rejoices in the growth of each human soul.
33. A Plea for Life
Illustration
Staff
A marshal in Napoleon's army, a man who was devotedly and enthusiastically attached to him, was mortally wounded in battle. As the last struggle drew near and he lay dying in his tent, he sent for his chief. Napoleon came. The poor man thought his emperor could do anything. Perhaps he even sought to put him in the place of God. So he earnestly pleaded with his leader to save his life. The emperor sadly shook his head and turned away. But as the dying man felt the cold, merciless hand of death drawing him irresistibly behind the curtain of the unseen world, he was still heard to shriek out, "Save me, Napoleon! Save me!" In the hour of death, that soldier discovered that even the powerful Napoleon could not give him physical life.
So often in our world, when we are in peril, we reach out to the earthly powers around us who cannot help us, instead of to the Lord God our Savior, who can save and heal us.
34. Monuments To Self
Illustration
Brett Blair
There is a strange group of tombstones in the Mount Hope Cemetery inHiawatha, Kansas. A man named John Davis, a farmer and self-made man, had them erected. Davis began as a lowly hired hand and by sheer determination and frugality he managed to amass a considerable fortune. In the process, however, Davis didn't make many friends.
When his wife died, Davis erected an elaborate statue in her memory. He hired a sculptor to design a monument which showed both her and him at opposite ends of a love seat. He was so pleased with the result that he commissioned another statue - this time of himself, kneeling at her grave, placing a wreath on it. That impressed him so much that he ordered a third monument - this time of his wife kneeling at his future gravesite placing a wreath. He had the sculptor add a pair of wings on her back giving her the appearance of an angel. One idea led to another until he'd spent over a quarter million dollars on the monuments to himself and his wife, all during the depression!
After using up all his money on stone statues - John Davis died at age 92. The monuments are now a big tourist attraction, butvery few people attended Mr. Davis' funeral. Only one person seemed genuinely moved by any sense of personal loss. He was Horace England - the sculptor. David did give tens-of-thousands tovarious charities causes in the area over his lifetime butMonuments to yourself seems a strange way to leave this world.
Note:Go here to see the see the actual monument.
35. The Good Hunter
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
During hard times in the darkness of winter in an Alaskan Eskimo village a young man of unequaled courage might go out into the bitter cold in search of food for his people. Armed only with a pointed stick and his compassion for his starving village, he would wander, anticipating the attack of a polar bear. Having no natural fear of humans, a polar bear will stalk and eat a man. In the attack the Eskimo hunter would wave his hands and spear to anger the bear and make him rise up on his hind legs to over ten feet in height; and then, with the spear braced to his foot, the hunter would aim for the heart as the weight of the bear came down upon his spear. With heart pierced, the bear might live long enough to maim or kill this noble hunter. Loving family and friends would then follow his tracks out of the village and find food for their survival and evidence of profound courage.
Early missionaries proclaimed to attentive ears chat Jesus Christ is the "Good Hunter" who lays down his life for the world.
36. Blinding Anger
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Alexander the Great was one of the few men in history who seemed to deserve his descriptive title. He was energetic, versatile, and intelligent. Although hatred was not generally part of his nature, several times in his life he was tragically defeated by anger. The story is told of one of these occasions, when a dear friend of Alexander, a general in his army, became intoxicated and began to ridicule the emperor in front of his men. Blinded by anger and quick as lightning, Alexander snatched a spear from the hand of a soldier and hurled it at his friend. Although he had only intended to scare the drunken general, his aim was true and the spear took the life of his childhood friend.
Deep remorse followed his anger. Overcome with guilt, Alexander attempted to take his own life with the same spear, but he was stopped by his men. For days he lay sick, calling for his friend and chiding himself as a murderer.
Alexander the Great conquered many cities and vanquished many countries, but he had failed miserably to control his own spirit.
37. Love Rejoices in the Right
Illustration
John R. Steward
Love does not insist on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the right." (vv. 5-6)
Andre Malraux, the French author, tells in his book Lazarus of being with the troops that liberated the Nazi extermination camps toward the end of World War II. He said that you could see the prisoners' skeletons through their skin. One journalist who was with the liberating troops was interviewing the now former prisoners. They were very weak and many were near death. The interviews did not last very long, but the power of what they said and the way they said it could not be measured by the length of the interview. One prisoner summed it up by simply saying, "You see, there's no room left in our hearts except for forgiveness."
The true language of love is forgiveness. Sometimes the only way we can forgive is to be so filled with the unconditional love of God that there is not room for anything else. The answer to our bitterness is to be filled with God's love in Jesus Christ.
Source: Andre Malraux, Lazarus. "
38. SHEEPSHEARER
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Genesis 38:12 - "in course of time the wife of Judah, Shuah’s daughter, died; and when Judah was comforted, he went up to Timnah, to his sheepshearers, he and his friend Hirah the Adullamite."
2 Samuel 13:23 - "After two full years Absalom had sheepshearers at Baalhazor, which was near Ephraim, and Absalom invited all the king’s sons."
Shearing was done after the spring lambing season at the shearing houses. However, not all the sheep were shorn - the firstlings of the flock were sacred to God and were not shorn. The wool which was gathered from these sheep was made into clothing for the family, and, for those who had additional wool, it made a substantial income when sold.
The shearing time was a time of great rejoicing, and gave rise to a gala feast. The flock’s owner, joined by his shearers, provided a feast for friends and relatives. Part of the joy stemmed from the revenue realized, but there may very well be some connection between these festivals and the Passover Feast.
The large sheep owners of today still use sheep-shearers to remove the wool from the sheep and prepare it for shipment to the manufacturers of materials and clothing. Without them, many of the articles of clothing that we take so much for granted would be unavailable.
39. Deceit as the Art of War
Illustration
Staff
Deception has been a part of warfare since the Trojan horse. During WWII, it became high art. Members of the 23rd Headquarters Special Troops used special "weapons" like dummy planes, tanks, antiaircraft guns, and amplified recordings that created war sounds to fool the German high command. To enable a combat unit to change positions or even attack when the Germans thought it hadn't moved at all, the 1800 men of the 23rd impersonated entire divisions. They would move in at night, change insignias, and inflate their rubber decoys. Meanwhile, the troops they were replacing sneaked away. Such deception was a major factor in the success of the Allies' D-Day invasion, as the German 15th Army waited elsewhere for an assault that never came.
40. Cargo Cults - In John They Trust
Illustration
Paul Raffaele
During World War II, the tiny island of Tanna in the South Pacific became one of many outposts that American troops temporarily occupied. The residents of Tanna, previously sheltered from the developed world, were exposed to things like radios, packaged foods, cigarette lighters, and Jeeps. They never forgot the mysterious luxury goods that the G.I.’s brought with them.
After the troops moved away, some of these remote people groups developed “cargo cults,” religions based around the worship of a god who would one day return bearing material gifts, like cars and flashlights.
One of the last known surviving cargo cults still exists on the island of Tanna, where many people identify themselves as members of the John Frum religion. According to the worshipers, John Frum was an American soldier who lived in Tanna during World War II. He brought fascinating luxury items with him, like radios and televisions and Jeeps. And he promised to come back with more goods if the islanders continued to pray to him. Numerous islanders pray to John Frum. They also compose songs of praise to him and to American factories that make luxury goods. Every February 15, the citizens of Tanna celebrate John Frum day with songs, dances, and elaborate ceremonies.
When a journalist questioned a Tannese man’s faith, the man replied, “You Christians have been waiting 2,000 years for Jesus to return to earth, and you haven’t given up hope.”
Note: This is actually true. You can read more about it here:https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-john-they-trust-109294882/
41. I Have the Peace
Illustration
Ralph Turnbull
A friend visited an elderly woman badly crippled by arthritis. When asked, "Do you suffer much?" she responded, "Yes, but there is no nail here," and she pointed to her hand. "He had the nails, I have the peace." She pointed to her head. "There are no thorns here. He had the thorns, I have the peace." She touched her side. "There is no spear here. He had the spear, I have the peace." That is what the atonement of Jesus Christ means for us—He gave of himself so that we might have the peace.
42. We Cut the Coal
Illustration
John R. Steward
Sometimes people do not think that their work is very important or significant. They go through each day believing that what they do is of little value or importance. They need to see the larger picture and how their job fits into the bigger picture. They need to discover, as Martin Luther said, the ministry of vocation.
During World War II, Winston Churchill as Prime Minister was traveling around his country. He was trying to motivate and inspire his fellow citizens. He was willing to go almost anywhere to encourage people in the war effort. He would, of course, always visit the troops. But he also visited those who worked on the farms and in the factories. He knew that the odds against them were great and that he must continue to help keep the morale high.
There was one group he had not yet seen. It was the coal miners. Someone asked him if he would be willing to see these men, who spend most of their time below the ground in such dangerous conditions. One man told Churchill that the miners did not feel that they were doing very much in the effort against the Nazis. He said that no one ever gave them any credit for the work that they did. Would he visit them, he asked. The Prime Minister told the man that he would be pleased to visit these men.
When Churchill visited the coal miners they were absolutely amazed that he was there. They could not believe that he would come to see them. All they could do was to stare with their dirty faces at the man who would lead Britain to victory. His words will never be forgotten by those who heard him on that day. "We will be victorious!" he said. "We will preserve our freedom. And years from now when our freedom is secure and peace reigns, your children and your children's children will come and they will say to you, 'What did you do to win our freedom in that great war?' And one will say, 'I marched with the Eighth Army!' Someone else will proudly say, 'I manned a submarine.' And another will say, 'I guided the ships that moved the troops and the supplies.' And still another will say, 'I doctored the wounds!' " The men sat with rapt attention wondering what he might say about them. "They will come to you," he shouted, "and you will say with equal right and equal pride, 'I cut the coal! I cut the coal that fueled the ships that moved the supplies! That's what I did. I cut the coal!'
Adapted from Robert Schuller, Be an Extraordinary Person in an Ordinary World (Old Tappan, New Jersey: Fleming H. Revell), p. 89.
43. The Final Stand
Illustration
Leonidas, King of Sparta, was preparing to make a stand with his Greek troops against the Persian army in 480 B.C. when a Persian envoy arrived. The man urged on Leonidas the futility of trying to resist the advance of the huge Persian army. "Our archers are so numerous," said the envoy, "that the flight of their arrows darkens the sun."
"So much the better," replied Leonidas, "for we shall fight them in the shade." Leonidas made his stand, and died with his 300 troops.
44. WEAVER
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
1 Samuel 17:7 - "And the shaft of his spear was like a weaver’s beam, and his spear’s head weighed six hundred shekels of iron; and his shield-bearer went before him."
Job 7:6 - "My days are swifter than a weaver’s shuttle, and come to their end without hope."
Weaving is the process of making a fabric by interlacing two or more sets of yarn at right angles to each other. The lengthwise set is called the warf; the crosswise is the weft. Before any weaving can be done, the warp yarns must be stretched on the loom, or weaving frame, so that they are even, parallel, and taut.
The most primitive loom was probably the branch of a tree, from which the warp threads were hung, with a stone tied on the end of each thread to hold it in place. Next came the loom consisting of two sticks between which the warp was stretched.
In biblical times, three kinds of looms were in use:
1. The Egyptian vertical loom consisted of a warp beam at the top and a cloth beam at the bottom. Two weavers stood at each side of the loom and passed the shuttle back and forth, alternating sheds beating the weft down. Gravity helped pack the wefts tightly.
2. The Greek vertical loom consisted of a cloth beam at the top and loom weights on the bottom of the warps. The weaver stood in front of the loom and bent the weft upward.
3. The horizontal loom was the kind most often used by the Hebrews. This consisted of two beams held secure by four pegs driven into the ground. The weaver sat in front of the loom. This particular type of loom is narrower than the other two. It was also easily moved, and thus in favor with nomads.
Weaving was commonly practiced by both men and women, although probably more often by women, at least, in making materials for use in the home. However, men were responsible for the making of fabrics for the Tabernacle and for priests’ apparel.
Sheep’s wool, goat’s hair, camel’s hair, flax, hemp, and ramie were among the materials used for weaving, and the standard width for both woolen and linen materials was four cubits or about six feet.
We use the term, "the distaff side," when referring to women, and this comes from a reference to weaving in the Book of Proverbs: "She puts her hands to the distaff, and her hands hold the spindle" (Proverbs 31:19). The distaff was the stick which held the combed wool. It was held in the left hand so that the right hand was free to manipulate the thread and spindle. The women were so adept at this that they could spin the yarn as they walked, talked, and, sometimes, even when they ate!
Today our materials are made commercially on huge looms, but the principle of the weaving is the same. It has come down almost intact from the past. And without the weaver we would all be very cold people when winter came around!
45. The Triumph and the Tragedy
Illustration
King Duncan
Go with me now to the year 1942. The first American troops are marching into London.We are entering the conflict known as World War II. The people of London are cheering the American soldiers. The friendly reception exhilarates the young soldiers. They sing as they march. Suddenly the troops turn into a main street and a strange hush falls over the scene. The happy songs die on their lips. They are looking for the first time upon an area in London that has been blown to bits. They see the great wounds on the city inflicted by falling bombs. They suddenly realize the city has suffered terribly. In these young soldiers' hearts, one moment celebration; the next, great sadness.
The triumph and the tragedy. Palm Sunday. Good Friday. Life happens.
46. Part of the Ritual
Illustration
Brett Blair
The story is told about the baptism of King Aengus by St. Patrick in the middle of the fifth century. Sometime during the rite, St. Patrick leaned on his sharp-pointed staff and inadvertently stabbed the king's foot. After the baptism was over, St. Patrick looked down at all the blood, realized what he had done, and begged the king's forgiveness. Why did you suffer this pain in silence, the Saint wanted to know. The king replied, "I thought it was part of the ritual."
I am here to tell you that your king was stabbed in the foot . . . and the hand, and the side and the head and that WAS part of the ritual. And, you and I are the ones who held the staff. I ask you. Will you beg the King's forgiveness?
47. Twice Named
Illustration
Brett Blair
Repeating a person's name is a Hebrew expression of intimacy. When God speaks to Abraham at Mount Moriah, as he is about to plunge the knife into the breast of Isaac, He says, "Abraham, Abraham." Or when God encourages Jacob in his old age to take the trip to Egypt, He says, "Jacob, Jacob" (Genesis 22:11, 46:2). Compare the call of Moses from the burning bush: "Moses, Moses," or the call of Samuel in the night, "Samuel, Samuel" (Exodus 3:4; 1 Sam 3:10). Or consider David's cry of agony, "Absalom, Absalom," and Jesus' cry of desolation on the cross, "My God, my God." (2 Samuel 18:33; Matt 27:46). When Jesus comforted Martha, when He warned Peter, and when He wept over Jerusalem in each case we find the word repeated for intimacy's sake (Luke 10:41; 22:31; Matt 23:37).
So when Jesus says, "Not everyone who says to me, 'Lord, Lord,' will enter the kingdom of heaven," he is pointing out a false intimacy. People who say they love God, and use the right language, but in truth their hearts are far away.
48. Spontaneous Brotherhood
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
Amid the horrors of World War I, there occurred a unique truce when, for a few hours, enemies behaved like brothers.
Christmas Eve in 1914 was all quiet on France's Western Front, from the English Channel to the Swiss Alps. Trenches came within fifty miles of Paris. The war was only five months old, and approximately eight hundred thousand men had been wounded or killed. Every soldier wondered whether Christmas Day would bring another round of fighting and killing, but something happened:
British soldiers raised Merry Christmas signs, and soon carols were heard from German and British trenches alike.
Christmas dawned with unarmed soldiers leaving their trenches as officers of both sides tried unsuccessfully to stop their troops from meeting the enemy in the middle of no-man's-land for songs and conversation. Exchanging small gifts—mostly sweets and cigars—they passed Christmas Day peacefully along miles of the front. At one spot, the British played soccer with the Germans, who won three to two.
In some places, the spontaneous truce contained the next day, neither side willing to fire the first shot. Finally the war resumed when fresh troops arrived, and the high command of both armies ordered that further "informal understandings" with the enemy would be punishable as treason.
49. More Beyond
Illustration
Staff
In Valladolid, Spain, where Christopher Columbus died in 1506, stands a monument commemorating the great discoverer. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the memorial is a statue of a lion destroying one of the Latin words that had been part of Spain's motto for centuries. Before Columbus made his voyages, the Spaniards thought they had reached the outer limits of earth. Thus their motto was "Ne Plus Ultra," which means "No More Beyond." The word being torn away by the lion is "Ne" or "no," making it read "Plus Ultra." Columbus had proven that there was indeed "more beyond."
50. The Elephant
Illustration
William White
The legend is told ofa village where all the inhabitants were blind. When a man passed one day riding an elephant, a group of the village men cried out asking the rider to let them touch the great beast, for though they had heard about elephants, they had never been close to one.
About six of them were allowed to approach the animal, each being led to touch a different part of the body. After a time, the rider left, and the blind men hurried back to the people to share their experience. "So what is an elephant like?" the people in the crowd asked their six friends.
"Oh, I know all about elephants," boasted the man who had touched the animal's side. "He is long and narrow, built like a thick wall."
"Nonsense!" shouted the man who had touched the elephant's tusk. "He is rather short, round, and smooth, but very sharp. I would compare an elephant to . . . well, let's say a spear."
A third man, who had touched the ear, chimed in. "It is nothing like a wall or spear. An elephant is like a gigantic leaf, made of thick wool carpet, that moves when you touch it."
"I disagree," said the fourth man who had handled the trunk. "An elephant is much like a large snake."
The fifth man shouted his disapproval. He had touched a leg of the great beast. "It is plain to me than none of you knows what an elephant looks like. It is round and reaches toward the heavens like a tree."
The sixth man, who had been placed on the elephant's back, cried out, "Can none of you accurately describe an elephant? He is like a gigantic moving mountain."
To this day, the argument has not been resolved, and the people of that village still have no idea what an elephant looks like.
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